Postagens
http://ancient-greece.org/architecture/parthenon.html
The Parthenon
At the approximate position where the Parthenon was built later, the Athenians began the construction of a building that was burned by the Persians while it was still under construction in 480 BCE. It was presumably dedicated to Athena, and after its destruction much of its ruins were utilized in the building of the fortifications at the north end of the Acropolis. Not much is known about this temple, and whether or not it was still under construction when it was destroyed has been disputed. Its massive foundations were made of limestone, and the columns were made of Pentelic marble, a material that was utilized for the first time. The classicalParthenon was constructed between 447-432 BCE to be the focus of the Acropolis building complex. The architects were Iktinos and Kallikrates (Vitruvius also names Karpion as an architect) and it was dedicated to the goddess Athena Pallas or Parthenos (virgin). The temple’s main function was to shelter the monumental statue of Athena that was made by Pheidias out of gold and ivory. The temple and the chryselephantine statue were dedicated in 438, although work on the sculptures of its pediment continued until completion in 432 BCE.
The Parthenon construction cost the Athenian treasury 469 silver talents. While it is almost impossible to create a modern equivalent for this amount of money, it might be useful to look at some facts. One talent was the cost to build one trireme, the most advanced warship of the era. (http://www.brown.edu/Departments/Classics/CL56/CL56_LN11.html), and “…one talent was the cost for paying the crew of a warship for a month” (D. Kagan, The Peloponnesian War, 61). According to Kagan, Athens at the beginning of the Peloponnesian war had 200 triremes in service, while the annual gross income of the city of Athens at the time of Perikles was 1000 talents, with another 6000 in reserve at its treasury.
The Parthenon is a temple of the Doric order with eight columns at the façade, and seventeen columns at the flanks, conforming to the established ratio of 9:4. This ratio governed the vertical and horizontal proportions of the temple as well as many other relationships of the building like the spacing between the columns and their height.
The cella was unusually large to accommodate the oversized statue of Athena, confining the front and back porch to a much smaller than usual size. A line of six Doric columns supported the front and back porch, while a colonnade of 23 smaller Doric columns surrounded the statue in a two-storied arrangement. The placement of columns behind the statue was an unusual development since in previous Doric temples they only appeared on the flanks, but the greater width and length of the Parthenon allowed for a dramatic backdrop of double decked columns instead of a wall.
The back room sheltered Athena’s treasure and four columns of the Ionic order supported its roof. The introduction of elements of the Ionic order in a predominately Doric temple was more dramatic in the development of a continuous freeze on the exterior wall of the cella. While the integration of Doric and Ionic elements on the same temple was not a new development in Greek architecture, it was rare, and bestowed on the Parthenon a delicate balance between austere and delicate visual characteristics.
All temples in Greece were designed to be seen only from the outside. The viewers never entered a temple and could only glimpse the interior statues through the open doors. The Parthenon was conceived in a way that the aesthetic elements allow for a smooth transition between the exterior and the interior that housed the chryselephantine statue of Athena. A visitor to the Acropolis who entered from the Propylaia would be confronted by the majestic proportion of the Parthenon in three quarters view, with full view of the west pediment and the north colonnade. As the viewer moved closer, the details of the sculpted metopes would become decipherable, and when in proximity to the base of the columns, parts of the frieze would become evident in tantalizing colorful glimpses peering from the spaces between the columns.
Moving towards the east and looking up towards the exterior of the cella, a visitor would be mesmerized with the masterful depiction of the Panathenaic procession as it appeared in cinematic fashion on the frieze which was visually interrupted by the Doric columns of the exterior. This was certainly a scene that every Athenian could relate to through personal experience, making thus the transition between earth and the divine a smooth one. A visitor moving east would eventually turn the corner to face the entrance of the Parthenon, and there he would be confronted with the birth of Athena high above on the east pediment, and just beyond it, the arrephores folding the peplos among the Olympian gods and the heroes of the frieze. Then, just below, the “peplos” scene, through the immense open doors, any visitor would be enchanted by the glistening gold and ivory hues of the monumental statue of Athena standing at the back of the dim cella. The statue of Athena Pallas reflected its immense stature on the tranquil surface of the water-pool floor, and was framed by yet more Doric columns, this time smaller, in a double-decked arrangement that made the interior space seem as if it were even larger and taller than the exterior.
It seems certain that the master planners of the Parthenon conceived it as a theatrical event. The temple was constructed with the movements of the viewer in mind, and by the arrangement of the temple, the monumental sculptures of the pediment, and the detailed frieze, the emotions of the visitors were choreographed to prepare them for the ultimate glimpse of the majestic Athena Parthenos at the interior of the naos, and to maximize the effect of an awe inspiring visit.
segunda-feira, 8 de fevereiro de 2010
sexta-feira, 5 de fevereiro de 2010
Lybia
http://www.libyan-tourism.org/Standard.aspx?ID=83
Tourist Attractions of LibyaThe first site that most tourists visit while arriving to Libya is Tripoli or the capital country. It is the city of Islamic civilization, Arab art and handicraft, where every monument narrates a tale. The dominating site of Tripoli is the castle, Al-Saraya Al-Hamra, which occupies the east quadrant of the old city. The Castle Museum displays archaeology and artifacts of ancient Libyan history covering the Phoenician, Greek and Roman periods. Tripoli is also vibrant with lush garden filled with olive trees, palms, grapevines, and orange groves.
Founded by the Canaanites in the 6th century BC the World Heritage site of Sabratah is located on the beautiful Mediterranean coastline. The Amphitheatre in Sabratha is a major tourist spot with a wide variety of public baths, temples and fountains.
The historical town of Leptis Magna in the east of Tripoli offers incredible archaeological sites. It was originally a port, built by the Phoenicians in the first millennium BC. Among the things worth seeing in Leptis Magna are the Severan Arch built in honor of Emperor Septimus Severus, the Hadrianic Baths, a detailed Basilica and an amphitheater.
One of the best tours that Libya offers is a visit to Ghadames desert, in the south of Tripoli. Built in an oasis, Ghadames, "the pearl of the desert", is one of the oldest pre-Saharan cities and a beautiful specimen of a traditional settlement. The old town's unique architecture consists of whitewashed mud walls and narrow and obscure walkways. Worth seeing are the D'jmaa al-Kabir mosque, where the minaret can be climbed for a wonderful panorama of the city; Mulberry Square or the old slave market and the House Museum, that displays unique mercantile furnishings. Nearby are the Zallaf Sand Dunes, abode of the native Tuareng tribe.
Benghazi is Libya's second-largest city located on the eastern most part of the Gulf of Sirt. Ras Alteen a nearby beach with pristine white sands is a relaxation spot of the tourists. Other historical sites include the battlefield of Tobruk and the town of Cyrene. In nearby Suluq stands the mausoleum of Omar Mokhtar, hero of the Libyan Resistance during the Italian occupation. Libya is a fascinating mix of history, culture and desert life. Tripoli, the capital city is a showcase to the rest of the country. Interesting sights include the Al medina Al Gadima, Al Saray Al Hare Castle, the many bazaars and souks as well as the museums and The countries Islamic heritage can be seen at Sirt, Darnah and Ajdabiya, and a glimpse of local Libyan life can be observed in the desert cities of Ghadames, Ghat, Ahwhat, Ojla, mosques. Tripoli is the capital of Libya.Religion: The state religion is Islam (Sunni Muslim).Official Language: The official language is Arabic. English and Italian are also spoken.Government: Power of the people. Climate: Libya has a Mediterranean climate. Winters are mild and wet and summers, hot and dry. Units of measure and electricity: Libya follows the metric system of measurement and the official electricity unit is 220V, 50 Hz.Time Zone: The Libya standard time is GMT + 2.Currency: Libyan Dinar (1 € = 1, 72 LYD).Travel documents required: Visas are necessary for travel to Libya.
Tripoli
Tripoli is Libya's largest city and port, the country's capital full-time .It is located on the Mediterranean Sea, in the northwestern part of the country. The climate is Mediterranean with hot dry summers, cool winters and some modest rainfall.The city was founded in the 7th century BC by the Phoenicians, who named it Oea. As an important gateway between Africa and Europe, commerce prospered through the years.Modern Tripoli is divided into two parts:El-Mina, the port area and site of the beautiful ancient city;The town of Tripoli. Tripoli International Airport is very near the city.
Benghazi
Benghazi is in north-eastern Libya. Located on the Gulf of Sidra Benghazi, it is the second largest city in the country. Benghazi has a Mediterranean climate with moderate wet winters and warm dry summers.
Derna
Derna is located in the northern part of Libya, along the Mediterranean Sea. Derna enjoys a humid Mediterranean climate with temperatures in the summer averaging 30°C. Winter temperatures are much cooler here than in the interior desert region; rainfall occurs at this time of the year.
Germa
Germa is a small village in the western part of Libya. This sparsely populated settlement is nestled in the eastern Sahara desert or what is also known as the Fezzan desert region.The climate here is typical of the desert region of the country. There is hardly any rainfall at all. Summers are hot with temperatures often hovering around the 50°C mark; winters are chilly. A hot desert wind, the ghibli, can raise the temperature any time of the year.
Ghadhames
Ghadhames is a beautiful oasis town in the country of Libya, in Africa. It is located 600 km south-west of Tripoli (the capital of Libya), near the border between Algeria and Tunisia.Gradhames is characterized by a typical desert climate it experiences scorching, dry heat during the summers, while the winters are mild. There are huge variations in the day and night temperatures. October to April is the best time to visit this place.
Ghat
Ghat is located in the south-western part of Libya. This remote region, almost in the middle of the great Sahara
Desert.
Ghat has the typical desert climate with temperatures in summer often soaring to 50ºC, while in winters they may drop to 15ºC in the day and even below the freezing point at night.
Sussa
Sussa, also known as Apollonia, lies on the north-western side of the Al Jabal Al Akhdar (Green Mountains) in Al Jabal Al Akhdar, Libya. The city of Sussa, is about 1,300 km from the Libyan capital Tripoli. Situated on the Mediterranean coast, it is 20 km north of Shahat (Cyrene). Apollonia served as a harbour for Cyrene and was one of the five towns of the Greek Pentapolis.The region Hot, dry summers and cool winters are characteristic of the weather in Sussa. Dust storms and sandstorms accompanied by the southern Gibli winds are a common occurrence.
Shahat
Shahat, also known historically as Cyrene, is a city in northern Libya. It is one of the biggest and most beautiful archaeological areas in the Green Mountains. The nearest airports are the Benin International Airport (in Benghazi).It is Founded in 631 BC by Greek expatriates, the city lies on the ruins of Cyrene. It is classified as a World Heritage Site is considered one of the most beautiful Greek vestiges in the world today. Shahat was also the most famous of the Pentapolis cities of the region.The region experiences a temperate-Mediterranean climate, with cool winters and dry summers. Extreme weather conditions are to be expected due to the desert terrain.
Leptis Magna
Leptis Magna is an archaeological site in the northern part of Libya. It is located in the Al Khums region, with the Mediterranean coast on one side and the Sahara Desert on the other. Owing to its location near the Mediterranean Sea the area has a more temperate climate than the interiors of the country. The impact of the desert keeps the climate dry with very hot summers and pleasant winters. Rainfall is minimal.
Sabratah
Sabratah is situated in the northern part of Libya, in the Zawia district along the Mediterranean coast. The region enjoys a typical Mediterranean climate—more temperate climate than the interiors of the country. The impact of the desert keeps the climate dry with very hot summers and pleasant winters. Rainfall is minimal.Sabratah was one of the three ancient cities of Tripoli; the closest one. Its port was developed more than 2,500 years ago, and it was used as a trading post for the surrounding areas to ship their products to other areas of the world.
Tolmeitha
Tolmeitha, previously known as Ptolemais, is a tranquil town in Al Marj, in north-eastern Libya. It lies at the foot of the Green Mountains and forms a part of the impressive Greek Pentapolis (which also includes Apollonia and Cyrene). Historically, Tolmeitha was a part of the ancient city of Cyrenaica. In troubled times, it acted as a safe haven between Apollonia (modern Sussa) and Euhesperides-Berenice (modern Benghazi).The region experiences a Mediterranean climate, adding to its charm as a year-round tourist destination. Tolmeitha’s weather is mostly desert-like and dry, but pleasant near water bodies
Tukra
Tukra, or Teuchira as it was earlier known, is a historic city in the Green Mountains region of Libya. Founded in 510 BC, it used to be a port city for the Greeks and later became of one of the five cities of the respected Pentapolis along with Cyrene, Apollonia, Berenice and Ptolemais (during the rule of Ptolemy the Great). Tukra experiences hot, dry summers and cool winters. Precipitation is minimal during the year. During spring and autumn, the region is prone to Gibli (dusty desert winds).
Zuwaylah and Jalu
Zuwaylah and Jalu. Many of these places offer excellent desert safaris. For lovers of history, Libya is home to the World Heritage Sites .
Tourist Attractions of LibyaThe first site that most tourists visit while arriving to Libya is Tripoli or the capital country. It is the city of Islamic civilization, Arab art and handicraft, where every monument narrates a tale. The dominating site of Tripoli is the castle, Al-Saraya Al-Hamra, which occupies the east quadrant of the old city. The Castle Museum displays archaeology and artifacts of ancient Libyan history covering the Phoenician, Greek and Roman periods. Tripoli is also vibrant with lush garden filled with olive trees, palms, grapevines, and orange groves.
Founded by the Canaanites in the 6th century BC the World Heritage site of Sabratah is located on the beautiful Mediterranean coastline. The Amphitheatre in Sabratha is a major tourist spot with a wide variety of public baths, temples and fountains.
The historical town of Leptis Magna in the east of Tripoli offers incredible archaeological sites. It was originally a port, built by the Phoenicians in the first millennium BC. Among the things worth seeing in Leptis Magna are the Severan Arch built in honor of Emperor Septimus Severus, the Hadrianic Baths, a detailed Basilica and an amphitheater.
One of the best tours that Libya offers is a visit to Ghadames desert, in the south of Tripoli. Built in an oasis, Ghadames, "the pearl of the desert", is one of the oldest pre-Saharan cities and a beautiful specimen of a traditional settlement. The old town's unique architecture consists of whitewashed mud walls and narrow and obscure walkways. Worth seeing are the D'jmaa al-Kabir mosque, where the minaret can be climbed for a wonderful panorama of the city; Mulberry Square or the old slave market and the House Museum, that displays unique mercantile furnishings. Nearby are the Zallaf Sand Dunes, abode of the native Tuareng tribe.
Benghazi is Libya's second-largest city located on the eastern most part of the Gulf of Sirt. Ras Alteen a nearby beach with pristine white sands is a relaxation spot of the tourists. Other historical sites include the battlefield of Tobruk and the town of Cyrene. In nearby Suluq stands the mausoleum of Omar Mokhtar, hero of the Libyan Resistance during the Italian occupation. Libya is a fascinating mix of history, culture and desert life. Tripoli, the capital city is a showcase to the rest of the country. Interesting sights include the Al medina Al Gadima, Al Saray Al Hare Castle, the many bazaars and souks as well as the museums and The countries Islamic heritage can be seen at Sirt, Darnah and Ajdabiya, and a glimpse of local Libyan life can be observed in the desert cities of Ghadames, Ghat, Ahwhat, Ojla, mosques. Tripoli is the capital of Libya.Religion: The state religion is Islam (Sunni Muslim).Official Language: The official language is Arabic. English and Italian are also spoken.Government: Power of the people. Climate: Libya has a Mediterranean climate. Winters are mild and wet and summers, hot and dry. Units of measure and electricity: Libya follows the metric system of measurement and the official electricity unit is 220V, 50 Hz.Time Zone: The Libya standard time is GMT + 2.Currency: Libyan Dinar (1 € = 1, 72 LYD).Travel documents required: Visas are necessary for travel to Libya.
Tripoli
Tripoli is Libya's largest city and port, the country's capital full-time .It is located on the Mediterranean Sea, in the northwestern part of the country. The climate is Mediterranean with hot dry summers, cool winters and some modest rainfall.The city was founded in the 7th century BC by the Phoenicians, who named it Oea. As an important gateway between Africa and Europe, commerce prospered through the years.Modern Tripoli is divided into two parts:El-Mina, the port area and site of the beautiful ancient city;The town of Tripoli. Tripoli International Airport is very near the city.
Benghazi
Benghazi is in north-eastern Libya. Located on the Gulf of Sidra Benghazi, it is the second largest city in the country. Benghazi has a Mediterranean climate with moderate wet winters and warm dry summers.
Derna
Derna is located in the northern part of Libya, along the Mediterranean Sea. Derna enjoys a humid Mediterranean climate with temperatures in the summer averaging 30°C. Winter temperatures are much cooler here than in the interior desert region; rainfall occurs at this time of the year.
Germa
Germa is a small village in the western part of Libya. This sparsely populated settlement is nestled in the eastern Sahara desert or what is also known as the Fezzan desert region.The climate here is typical of the desert region of the country. There is hardly any rainfall at all. Summers are hot with temperatures often hovering around the 50°C mark; winters are chilly. A hot desert wind, the ghibli, can raise the temperature any time of the year.
Ghadhames
Ghadhames is a beautiful oasis town in the country of Libya, in Africa. It is located 600 km south-west of Tripoli (the capital of Libya), near the border between Algeria and Tunisia.Gradhames is characterized by a typical desert climate it experiences scorching, dry heat during the summers, while the winters are mild. There are huge variations in the day and night temperatures. October to April is the best time to visit this place.
Ghat
Ghat is located in the south-western part of Libya. This remote region, almost in the middle of the great Sahara
Desert.
Ghat has the typical desert climate with temperatures in summer often soaring to 50ºC, while in winters they may drop to 15ºC in the day and even below the freezing point at night.
Sussa
Sussa, also known as Apollonia, lies on the north-western side of the Al Jabal Al Akhdar (Green Mountains) in Al Jabal Al Akhdar, Libya. The city of Sussa, is about 1,300 km from the Libyan capital Tripoli. Situated on the Mediterranean coast, it is 20 km north of Shahat (Cyrene). Apollonia served as a harbour for Cyrene and was one of the five towns of the Greek Pentapolis.The region Hot, dry summers and cool winters are characteristic of the weather in Sussa. Dust storms and sandstorms accompanied by the southern Gibli winds are a common occurrence.
Shahat
Shahat, also known historically as Cyrene, is a city in northern Libya. It is one of the biggest and most beautiful archaeological areas in the Green Mountains. The nearest airports are the Benin International Airport (in Benghazi).It is Founded in 631 BC by Greek expatriates, the city lies on the ruins of Cyrene. It is classified as a World Heritage Site is considered one of the most beautiful Greek vestiges in the world today. Shahat was also the most famous of the Pentapolis cities of the region.The region experiences a temperate-Mediterranean climate, with cool winters and dry summers. Extreme weather conditions are to be expected due to the desert terrain.
Leptis Magna
Leptis Magna is an archaeological site in the northern part of Libya. It is located in the Al Khums region, with the Mediterranean coast on one side and the Sahara Desert on the other. Owing to its location near the Mediterranean Sea the area has a more temperate climate than the interiors of the country. The impact of the desert keeps the climate dry with very hot summers and pleasant winters. Rainfall is minimal.
Sabratah
Sabratah is situated in the northern part of Libya, in the Zawia district along the Mediterranean coast. The region enjoys a typical Mediterranean climate—more temperate climate than the interiors of the country. The impact of the desert keeps the climate dry with very hot summers and pleasant winters. Rainfall is minimal.Sabratah was one of the three ancient cities of Tripoli; the closest one. Its port was developed more than 2,500 years ago, and it was used as a trading post for the surrounding areas to ship their products to other areas of the world.
Tolmeitha
Tolmeitha, previously known as Ptolemais, is a tranquil town in Al Marj, in north-eastern Libya. It lies at the foot of the Green Mountains and forms a part of the impressive Greek Pentapolis (which also includes Apollonia and Cyrene). Historically, Tolmeitha was a part of the ancient city of Cyrenaica. In troubled times, it acted as a safe haven between Apollonia (modern Sussa) and Euhesperides-Berenice (modern Benghazi).The region experiences a Mediterranean climate, adding to its charm as a year-round tourist destination. Tolmeitha’s weather is mostly desert-like and dry, but pleasant near water bodies
Tukra
Tukra, or Teuchira as it was earlier known, is a historic city in the Green Mountains region of Libya. Founded in 510 BC, it used to be a port city for the Greeks and later became of one of the five cities of the respected Pentapolis along with Cyrene, Apollonia, Berenice and Ptolemais (during the rule of Ptolemy the Great). Tukra experiences hot, dry summers and cool winters. Precipitation is minimal during the year. During spring and autumn, the region is prone to Gibli (dusty desert winds).
Zuwaylah and Jalu
Zuwaylah and Jalu. Many of these places offer excellent desert safaris. For lovers of history, Libya is home to the World Heritage Sites .
City of Sussa
Sussa, also known as Apollonia, lies on the north-western side of the Al Jabal Al Akhdar (Green Mountains) in Al Jabal Al Akhdar, Libya. The city of Sussa, or Sousse by the locals, is about 1,300 km from the Libyan capital Tripoli. Situated on the Mediterranean coast, it is 20 km north of Shahat (Cyrene) and is served by the El Beida Airport.
Apollonia served as a harbour for Cyrene and was one of the five towns of the Greek Pentapolis.
Hot, dry summers and cool winters are characteristic of the weather in Sussa. Dust storms and sandstorms accompanied by the southern Gibli winds are a common occurrence.
While the population of Sussa is unknown, the population of Al Jabal al Akhdar municipality is 195,000. The picturesque city of Shahat (Gorina) is located about 20 km south-west, and Al Bayda is around 40 km in the same direction.
Apollonia served as a harbour for Cyrene and was one of the five towns of the Greek Pentapolis.
Hot, dry summers and cool winters are characteristic of the weather in Sussa. Dust storms and sandstorms accompanied by the southern Gibli winds are a common occurrence.
While the population of Sussa is unknown, the population of Al Jabal al Akhdar municipality is 195,000. The picturesque city of Shahat (Gorina) is located about 20 km south-west, and Al Bayda is around 40 km in the same direction.
City of Sussa
Sussa, also known as Apollonia, lies on the north-western side of the Al Jabal Al Akhdar (Green Mountains) in Al Jabal Al Akhdar, Libya. The city of Sussa, or Sousse by the locals, is about 1,300 km from the Libyan capital Tripoli. Situated on the Mediterranean coast, it is 20 km north of Shahat (Cyrene) and is served by the El Beida Airport.
Apollonia served as a harbour for Cyrene and was one of the five towns of the Greek Pentapolis.
Hot, dry summers and cool winters are characteristic of the weather in Sussa. Dust storms and sandstorms accompanied by the southern Gibli winds are a common occurrence.
While the population of Sussa is unknown, the population of Al Jabal al Akhdar municipality is 195,000. The picturesque city of Shahat (Gorina) is located about 20 km south-west, and Al Bayda is around 40 km in the same direction.
Apollonia served as a harbour for Cyrene and was one of the five towns of the Greek Pentapolis.
Hot, dry summers and cool winters are characteristic of the weather in Sussa. Dust storms and sandstorms accompanied by the southern Gibli winds are a common occurrence.
While the population of Sussa is unknown, the population of Al Jabal al Akhdar municipality is 195,000. The picturesque city of Shahat (Gorina) is located about 20 km south-west, and Al Bayda is around 40 km in the same direction.
quinta-feira, 4 de fevereiro de 2010
Ur
http://history-world.org/ur.htm
Sumeria, The City of Ur
For the gods have abandoned us
like migrating birds they have gone
Ur is destroyed, bitter is its lament
The country's blood now fills its holes like hot bronze in a mould
Bodies dissolve like fat in the sun. Our temple is destroyed
Smoke lies on our city like a shroud.
blood flows as the river does
the lamenting of men and women
sadness abounds
Ur is no more
Ur (biblical, Ur of the Chaldees), ancient city of Mesopotamia. Its ruins are approximately midway between the modern city of Baghdâd, Iraq, and the head of the Persian Gulf, south of the Euphrates River, on the edge of the Al ajarah Desert. The site of Ur is known today as Tall al Muqayyar, Iraq. In antiquity the Euphrates River flowed near the city walls. Controlling this outlet to the sea, Ur was favorably located for the development of commerce and for attaining political dominance.
Ur was the principal center of worship of the Sumerian moon god Nanna and of his Babylonian equivalent Sin. The massive ziggurat of this deity, one of the best preserved in Iraq, stands about 21 m (about 70 ft) above the desert. The biblical name, Ur of the Chaldees, refers to the Chaldeans, who settled in the area about 900 BC. The Book of Genesis (see 11:27-32) describes Ur as the starting point of the migration westward to Palestine of the family of Abraham about 1900 BC.
Ur was one of the first village settlements founded (circa 4000 BC) by the so-called Ubaidian inhabitants of Sumer. Before 2800 BC, Ur became one of the most prosperous Sumerian city-states. According to ancient records, Ur had three dynasties of rulers who, at various times, extended their control over all of Sumer. The founder of the 1st Dynasty of Ur was the conqueror and temple builder Mesanepada (reigned about 2670 BC), the earliest Mesopotamian ruler described in extant contemporary documents. His son Aanepadda (reigned about 2650 BC) built the temple of the goddess Ninhursag, which was excavated in modern times at Tell al-Obeid, about 8 km (about 5 mi) northeast of the site of Ur. Of the 2nd Dynasty of Ur little is known.
Ur-Nammu (reigned 2113-2095 BC), the first king of the 3rd Dynasty of Ur, who revived the empire of Sumer and Akkad, won control of the outlet to the sea about 2100 BC and made Ur the wealthiest city in Mesopotamia. His reign marked the beginning of the so-called renaissance of Sumerian art and literature at Ur. Ur-Nammu and his son and successor Shulgi (reigned 2095-2047 BC) built the ziggurat of Nanna (about 2100 BC) and magnificent temples at Ur and in other Mesopotamian cities. The descendants of Ur-Nammu continued in power for more than a century, or until shortly before 2000 BC, when the Elamites captured Ibbi-Sin (reigned 2029-2004 BC), king of Ur, and destroyed the city.
Rebuilt shortly thereafter, Ur became part of the kingdom of Isin, later of the kingdom of Larsa, and finally was incorporated into Babylonia. During the period when Babylonia was ruled by the Kassites, Ur remained an important religious center. It was a provincial capital with hereditary governors during the period of Assyrian rule in Babylonia.
After the Chaldean dynasty was established in Babylonia, King Nebuchadnezzar II initiated a new period of building activity at Ur. The last Babylonian king, Nabonidus (reigned 556-539 BC), who appointed his eldest daughter high priestess at Ur, embellished the temples and entirely remodeled the ziggurat of Nanna, making it rival even the temple of Marduk at Babylon. After Babylonia came under the control of Persia, Ur began to decline. By the 4th century BC, the city was practically forgotten, possibly as a result of a shift in the course of the Euphrates River.
The ruins of Ur were found and first excavated (1854-55) by the British consul J. E. Taylor, who partly uncovered the ziggurat of Nanna. The British Museum commenced (1918-19) excavations here and at neighboring Tell al-Obeid under the direction of the British archaeologists Reginald C. Thompson and H. R. H. Hall. These excavations were continued from 1922 to 1934 by a joint expedition of the British Museum and the University Museum of the University of Pennsylvania under the direction of the British archaeologist Sir Leonard Woolley.
In addition to excavating the ziggurat completely, the expedition unearthed the entire temple area at Ur and parts of the residential and commercial quarters of the city. The most spectacular discovery was that of the Royal Cemetery, dating from about 2600BC and containing art treasures of gold, silver, bronze, and precious stones. The findings left little doubt that the deaths of the king and queen of Ur were followed by the voluntary death of their courtiers and personal attendants and of the court soldiers and musicians. Within the city itself were discovered thousands of cuneiform tablets comprising administrative and literary documents dating from about 2700 to the 4th century BC. The deepest levels of the city contained traces of a flood, alleged to be the deluge of Sumerian, Babylonian, and Hebrew legend. All scientific evidence, however, indicates that it was merely a local flood.
Sumeria, The City of Ur
For the gods have abandoned us
like migrating birds they have gone
Ur is destroyed, bitter is its lament
The country's blood now fills its holes like hot bronze in a mould
Bodies dissolve like fat in the sun. Our temple is destroyed
Smoke lies on our city like a shroud.
blood flows as the river does
the lamenting of men and women
sadness abounds
Ur is no more
Ur (biblical, Ur of the Chaldees), ancient city of Mesopotamia. Its ruins are approximately midway between the modern city of Baghdâd, Iraq, and the head of the Persian Gulf, south of the Euphrates River, on the edge of the Al ajarah Desert. The site of Ur is known today as Tall al Muqayyar, Iraq. In antiquity the Euphrates River flowed near the city walls. Controlling this outlet to the sea, Ur was favorably located for the development of commerce and for attaining political dominance.
Ur was the principal center of worship of the Sumerian moon god Nanna and of his Babylonian equivalent Sin. The massive ziggurat of this deity, one of the best preserved in Iraq, stands about 21 m (about 70 ft) above the desert. The biblical name, Ur of the Chaldees, refers to the Chaldeans, who settled in the area about 900 BC. The Book of Genesis (see 11:27-32) describes Ur as the starting point of the migration westward to Palestine of the family of Abraham about 1900 BC.
Ur was one of the first village settlements founded (circa 4000 BC) by the so-called Ubaidian inhabitants of Sumer. Before 2800 BC, Ur became one of the most prosperous Sumerian city-states. According to ancient records, Ur had three dynasties of rulers who, at various times, extended their control over all of Sumer. The founder of the 1st Dynasty of Ur was the conqueror and temple builder Mesanepada (reigned about 2670 BC), the earliest Mesopotamian ruler described in extant contemporary documents. His son Aanepadda (reigned about 2650 BC) built the temple of the goddess Ninhursag, which was excavated in modern times at Tell al-Obeid, about 8 km (about 5 mi) northeast of the site of Ur. Of the 2nd Dynasty of Ur little is known.
Ur-Nammu (reigned 2113-2095 BC), the first king of the 3rd Dynasty of Ur, who revived the empire of Sumer and Akkad, won control of the outlet to the sea about 2100 BC and made Ur the wealthiest city in Mesopotamia. His reign marked the beginning of the so-called renaissance of Sumerian art and literature at Ur. Ur-Nammu and his son and successor Shulgi (reigned 2095-2047 BC) built the ziggurat of Nanna (about 2100 BC) and magnificent temples at Ur and in other Mesopotamian cities. The descendants of Ur-Nammu continued in power for more than a century, or until shortly before 2000 BC, when the Elamites captured Ibbi-Sin (reigned 2029-2004 BC), king of Ur, and destroyed the city.
Rebuilt shortly thereafter, Ur became part of the kingdom of Isin, later of the kingdom of Larsa, and finally was incorporated into Babylonia. During the period when Babylonia was ruled by the Kassites, Ur remained an important religious center. It was a provincial capital with hereditary governors during the period of Assyrian rule in Babylonia.
After the Chaldean dynasty was established in Babylonia, King Nebuchadnezzar II initiated a new period of building activity at Ur. The last Babylonian king, Nabonidus (reigned 556-539 BC), who appointed his eldest daughter high priestess at Ur, embellished the temples and entirely remodeled the ziggurat of Nanna, making it rival even the temple of Marduk at Babylon. After Babylonia came under the control of Persia, Ur began to decline. By the 4th century BC, the city was practically forgotten, possibly as a result of a shift in the course of the Euphrates River.
The ruins of Ur were found and first excavated (1854-55) by the British consul J. E. Taylor, who partly uncovered the ziggurat of Nanna. The British Museum commenced (1918-19) excavations here and at neighboring Tell al-Obeid under the direction of the British archaeologists Reginald C. Thompson and H. R. H. Hall. These excavations were continued from 1922 to 1934 by a joint expedition of the British Museum and the University Museum of the University of Pennsylvania under the direction of the British archaeologist Sir Leonard Woolley.
In addition to excavating the ziggurat completely, the expedition unearthed the entire temple area at Ur and parts of the residential and commercial quarters of the city. The most spectacular discovery was that of the Royal Cemetery, dating from about 2600BC and containing art treasures of gold, silver, bronze, and precious stones. The findings left little doubt that the deaths of the king and queen of Ur were followed by the voluntary death of their courtiers and personal attendants and of the court soldiers and musicians. Within the city itself were discovered thousands of cuneiform tablets comprising administrative and literary documents dating from about 2700 to the 4th century BC. The deepest levels of the city contained traces of a flood, alleged to be the deluge of Sumerian, Babylonian, and Hebrew legend. All scientific evidence, however, indicates that it was merely a local flood.
sábado, 30 de janeiro de 2010
Kush/Nubia.
http://wysinger.homestead.com/mapofnubia.html
Rulers of Egypt's 25th Dynasty
& Ancient Nubia
Anu Race: First Inhabitants of Egypt
2007 Note: Swiss archaeologists, Professor Charles Bonnet and Dr. Matthieu Honegger – have been revealing a royal palace, temples, extraordinary tombs and a massive ancient city on the banks of the Nile in Northern Sudan. Kerma’s civilization emerged out of an ancient pastoral culture that had flourished in that part of Sudan since at least 7500 BC when the first settlements were established. [website]
Chronology of Kerma -- according to archaeologist Charles Bonnet
A-Group 3800-3100 BC Cemetery L at Qustul, Nubia
Nubian Royal Statue Head Found
Kushite Statue, Old Kingdom, Sixth Dynasty, 2300 B.C.
King Awawa (2000-1850 BC)
Awawa (or Awa’a) is the earliest Nubian king we know by name. He was a powerful Nubian king ruling at Kerma.
King Nedjeh (1650-1550 BC)
Towards the end of the 13th Dynasty Egypt underwent great political upheaval and withdrew from Nubia. In the north the Hyksos took control of Lower Egypt. In the south Wawat and the fortresses, including Buhen, were occupied by Kush. Not all Egyptians fled. This stela is from a group of monuments from Buhen belonging to a single family who administered the fortress over several generations under Kushite rule. Some Egyptian soldiers stayed and worked for them. An inscription of one Egyptian soldier states that he served "as a valiant servant, … washing my feet in the waters of Kush, in the company of King Nedjeh."
Huge attack from the south on Elkab and Egypt by the Kingdom of Kush and its allies from the land of Punt, during the 17th dynasty (1575-1525 BC)
[Article]
Alara and Queen Kasaqa (785-760 BC)
Unites Upper Nubia. Founder of Nubian power in the Napatan dynasty.
Beginning of the 25th Dynasty Egypt
King Kashta and Queen Pebatjma (760-747 BC)
Brother of King Alara. Ruler of Napatan Kush and Egypt.
(Begin to conquer Egypt from the Libyan pharaohs, starting the 25th dynasty Kushite domination)
el-Kurru tomb 8
King Piankhy (Piye) and Queen Aqaluqa & Tabiry (747-716 BC)
(Son of Kashta)
Conquers all of Egypt and rules as pharaoh of Egypt until his death. He is portrayed as a ruler who did not glory in the smiting of his adversaries, as did other kings, but rather preferred treaties and alliances. His victories on a stela (called the Victory Stela ("Hear of what I did, more than the ancestors"), now in the Egyptian Museum. In 716 B.C. Piankhy died after a reign of over thirty years. He was buried in an Egyptian style pyramid tomb at el-Kurru, accompanied by a number of horses, which were greatly prized by the Nubians of the Napatan period. Daughters: Shepenupet II and Qalhata.
el-Kurru tomb 17
King Shabaka (Shabaqo) [Great Cat] (716-702 BC)
(Piankhy's brother); wife Queen Qalhata.
His was the Golden Age of the Nubian domination of Egypt. Throughout his reign Shabaka made many additions to Egyptian temples, such as those at Memphis, Abydos and Esna. Shabaka appointed his son, Horemakhet as High Priest of Amun at Thebes, although the real power in the region lay with his sister Amenirdas I, whose mortuary temple and tomb are at Medinet Habu. Pharaoh Shabaka is noted in the Old Testament, Genesis 10:7.
el-Kurru tomb 15
King Shebitqo and Queen Irty (702-690 BC)
Son of Shabaka.
The Rescue of Jerusalem: The Alliance Between Hebrews and Africans in 701 B.C.
el Kurru tomb 18
King Taharqa and Queen Naparaye (690-664 BC)
Son of Piye. Read about The Osirian Temple of Taharqa at Karnak in Egypt
Nuri tomb 1. 2007: Sculpture of King Taharqa Found at Karnak
King Tanwetamani wife Queen Malakaye (664-656 BC)
Nuri tomb 16
Son of Shabaka. Once the Assyrians had appointed Necho I as king and left Egypt, Tanwetamani marched down the Nile from Nubia and reoccupied all of Egypt including Memphis. Necho I, the Assyrians' representative, was killed in Tanwetamani's campaign. He became King of Egypt for 7 years. In reaction, the Assyrians returned to Egypt in force, defeated Tanwetamani's army in the Delta and advanced as far as south as Thebes, which they sacked.
The Assyrian reconquest effectively ended Nubian control over Egypt although Tanwetamani's authority was still recognized in Upper Egypt until his 8th Year in 656 BC when Psamtik I's navy peacefully took control of Thebes and effectively unified all of Egypt.
This is the end of the 25th Dynasty Egypt; withdrew to Nubia; moved their administrative center further south to Napata.
King Atlanersa and Queen Yeturow (653-643 BC)
Taharqa's son. Yeturow sister-wife, daughter of Tanwetamani.
Nuri tomb 20
King Senkamanisken and Queen Nasalsa (643-623 BC)
(father of Aspelta and Anlamani)
Nuri tomb 3
King Anlamani and Queen Madiken (623-593 BC)
Son of Senkamaniskens and Nasalsa.
Nuri tomb 6
King Aspelta and Queen Kheb (593-568 BC)
Nuri tomb 8
King Armantelqo and Queen Amanitakaye (568-555 BC)
King of Upper and Lower Egypt.
Nuri tomb 9
King Malonaqen and Queen Tagtal (555-542 BC)
Nuri tomb 5
King Analmaaye (542-538 BC)
Nuri tomb 18
King Amaniastabarqa (538-519 BC)
Nuri tomb 2
King Siospiqo (?)
Nuri tomb 4
King Nasakhma and Queen Saka-aye (468-463 BC)
Nuri tomb 19
King Talakhamani (435-431 BC)
Nuri tomb 16
King Irike-Amannote and Queen [Ata]samalo 431-405 BC)
Some researchers think that Irike-amanote may have helped the Egyptians revolt against the invading Persians in 414-13 and 404 BC. Son was King Harsiyotef.
Nuri tomb 12
Harsiyotef [Harsiotef] and Queen Batahaliye (404-369 BC)
Harsiotef’s inscription is especially interesting because it describes the holy site of Gebel Barkal as it was in his day. He speaks of covering temples partly with gold, of laying out gardens and cattle pens, and of rebuilding the old royal palace there, which, he says, had sixty rooms. Son was Nastasen.
Nuri tomb 13
King Akhratan (or Akh-Aritene) (350-335 BC)
Nuri tomb 14
King Nastasen and Queen Sakhmakh (335-315 BC)
In his early reign, a prince from Egypt named Khababash invaded Lower Nubia. Prince Khababash came with transport ships, people, and cattle. Nastasen’s army defeated the invaders, took their treasure, and dedicated it to the god Amun. Ancient text mentions several other battles against desert peoples. These were also victorious and resulted in the capture of large numbers of cattle, goats, and gold.
Nuri tomb 15
King Aktisanes (310-279 BC)
Jebel Barkal tomb 11
King Aryamani (?)
Jebel Barkal tomb 14
King Kash[...] (?)
Jebel Barkal tomb 15
Meroitic Period (275 BC - 350 AD) -- Meroe
King Arnekhamani and Queen (235–218 BC)
Meroe North tomb 53
King Arqamani (218-200 BC)
Meroe North tomb 53
Arqamani builds large pyramids at Meroe. Kalabsha Temple decorations was attributed to the Nubian Pharaoh Arqamani from the 3rd century BC. The building seems to have been finished by the Romans with reference to Caesar Augustus. The Nubian king moves the royal necropolis from Napata to Meroe, a site between the fifth and sixth cataracts. Meroe, already an important center during the Napatan Period, becomes the capital of the Nubian kingdom. Meroe's location at the convergence of a network of caravan roads with trade routes along the White and Blue Niles makes it East Africa's most important center of trade. The Nubians of the Meroitic Period manufacture richly decorated textiles, graceful decorated ceramic vessels, objects of bronze and iron, exceptionally fine gold and cloisonné jewelry, and other luxury items.
Kandake Shanakdakhete (170–150 BC)
Kandake means "great woman" in Meroitic language.
Meroe North tomb 11
King Tanyidamani (110-90 BC)
Meroe North tomb 20
King Amanikhabale and Queen Kaditede (50-40 BC)
Meroe North tomb 2
Romans control Egypt in 30 BC. Meroitic kingdom never became part of the Roman
empire – although the Romans tried to make it part.
King Teriteqas and Candace Amanirenas (40-10 BC)
Meroe North tomb 14
Candace Amanishakheto (10 BC-1 AD)
Meroe North tomb 6
King Natekamani and Candace Amanitore (12-20 AD)
Son Prince Arikankharer
Bible reference: Acts 8:26-40.
Meroe North tomb 22
King Shorkaror (20-30 AD)
Shorkaror was the third son of Natakamani and Amanitore and the only one to become king.
King Amanitenmenmide (50-62 AD)
Meroe North tomb 17
Queen Amantombikhatashan (62-85 AD)
She is so far only known from her tomb in Meroe.
Prince Takidamani (140-155 AD)
Meroe West tomb 18
King Teqerideamani II (246-266 AD)
King Yesbokheamani (283-306 AD)
Meroe North tomb 24
Queen Lahideamani (306-308 AD)
Meroe North tomb 26
King Maleqorobar (314-329 AD)
Unknown Queen (308-320 AD)
Meroe North tomb 25
Akedaketival (329-340 AD)
350 AD - The traditional theory is that the kingdom at Meroe is destroyed during an invasion by Ezana of the Ethiopian kingdom of Axum. However, the Ethiopian account seems to describe the quelling of a rebellion in lands they already control. It also refers only to the Nuba, and makes no mention of the rulers of Meroe. However, no details of rulers are known after this date, making their survival unlikely.
Rulers of Egypt's 25th Dynasty
& Ancient Nubia
Anu Race: First Inhabitants of Egypt
2007 Note: Swiss archaeologists, Professor Charles Bonnet and Dr. Matthieu Honegger – have been revealing a royal palace, temples, extraordinary tombs and a massive ancient city on the banks of the Nile in Northern Sudan. Kerma’s civilization emerged out of an ancient pastoral culture that had flourished in that part of Sudan since at least 7500 BC when the first settlements were established. [website]
Chronology of Kerma -- according to archaeologist Charles Bonnet
A-Group 3800-3100 BC Cemetery L at Qustul, Nubia
Nubian Royal Statue Head Found
Kushite Statue, Old Kingdom, Sixth Dynasty, 2300 B.C.
King Awawa (2000-1850 BC)
Awawa (or Awa’a) is the earliest Nubian king we know by name. He was a powerful Nubian king ruling at Kerma.
King Nedjeh (1650-1550 BC)
Towards the end of the 13th Dynasty Egypt underwent great political upheaval and withdrew from Nubia. In the north the Hyksos took control of Lower Egypt. In the south Wawat and the fortresses, including Buhen, were occupied by Kush. Not all Egyptians fled. This stela is from a group of monuments from Buhen belonging to a single family who administered the fortress over several generations under Kushite rule. Some Egyptian soldiers stayed and worked for them. An inscription of one Egyptian soldier states that he served "as a valiant servant, … washing my feet in the waters of Kush, in the company of King Nedjeh."
Huge attack from the south on Elkab and Egypt by the Kingdom of Kush and its allies from the land of Punt, during the 17th dynasty (1575-1525 BC)
[Article]
Alara and Queen Kasaqa (785-760 BC)
Unites Upper Nubia. Founder of Nubian power in the Napatan dynasty.
Beginning of the 25th Dynasty Egypt
King Kashta and Queen Pebatjma (760-747 BC)
Brother of King Alara. Ruler of Napatan Kush and Egypt.
(Begin to conquer Egypt from the Libyan pharaohs, starting the 25th dynasty Kushite domination)
el-Kurru tomb 8
King Piankhy (Piye) and Queen Aqaluqa & Tabiry (747-716 BC)
(Son of Kashta)
Conquers all of Egypt and rules as pharaoh of Egypt until his death. He is portrayed as a ruler who did not glory in the smiting of his adversaries, as did other kings, but rather preferred treaties and alliances. His victories on a stela (called the Victory Stela ("Hear of what I did, more than the ancestors"), now in the Egyptian Museum. In 716 B.C. Piankhy died after a reign of over thirty years. He was buried in an Egyptian style pyramid tomb at el-Kurru, accompanied by a number of horses, which were greatly prized by the Nubians of the Napatan period. Daughters: Shepenupet II and Qalhata.
el-Kurru tomb 17
King Shabaka (Shabaqo) [Great Cat] (716-702 BC)
(Piankhy's brother); wife Queen Qalhata.
His was the Golden Age of the Nubian domination of Egypt. Throughout his reign Shabaka made many additions to Egyptian temples, such as those at Memphis, Abydos and Esna. Shabaka appointed his son, Horemakhet as High Priest of Amun at Thebes, although the real power in the region lay with his sister Amenirdas I, whose mortuary temple and tomb are at Medinet Habu. Pharaoh Shabaka is noted in the Old Testament, Genesis 10:7.
el-Kurru tomb 15
King Shebitqo and Queen Irty (702-690 BC)
Son of Shabaka.
The Rescue of Jerusalem: The Alliance Between Hebrews and Africans in 701 B.C.
el Kurru tomb 18
King Taharqa and Queen Naparaye (690-664 BC)
Son of Piye. Read about The Osirian Temple of Taharqa at Karnak in Egypt
Nuri tomb 1. 2007: Sculpture of King Taharqa Found at Karnak
King Tanwetamani wife Queen Malakaye (664-656 BC)
Nuri tomb 16
Son of Shabaka. Once the Assyrians had appointed Necho I as king and left Egypt, Tanwetamani marched down the Nile from Nubia and reoccupied all of Egypt including Memphis. Necho I, the Assyrians' representative, was killed in Tanwetamani's campaign. He became King of Egypt for 7 years. In reaction, the Assyrians returned to Egypt in force, defeated Tanwetamani's army in the Delta and advanced as far as south as Thebes, which they sacked.
The Assyrian reconquest effectively ended Nubian control over Egypt although Tanwetamani's authority was still recognized in Upper Egypt until his 8th Year in 656 BC when Psamtik I's navy peacefully took control of Thebes and effectively unified all of Egypt.
This is the end of the 25th Dynasty Egypt; withdrew to Nubia; moved their administrative center further south to Napata.
King Atlanersa and Queen Yeturow (653-643 BC)
Taharqa's son. Yeturow sister-wife, daughter of Tanwetamani.
Nuri tomb 20
King Senkamanisken and Queen Nasalsa (643-623 BC)
(father of Aspelta and Anlamani)
Nuri tomb 3
King Anlamani and Queen Madiken (623-593 BC)
Son of Senkamaniskens and Nasalsa.
Nuri tomb 6
King Aspelta and Queen Kheb (593-568 BC)
Nuri tomb 8
King Armantelqo and Queen Amanitakaye (568-555 BC)
King of Upper and Lower Egypt.
Nuri tomb 9
King Malonaqen and Queen Tagtal (555-542 BC)
Nuri tomb 5
King Analmaaye (542-538 BC)
Nuri tomb 18
King Amaniastabarqa (538-519 BC)
Nuri tomb 2
King Siospiqo (?)
Nuri tomb 4
King Nasakhma and Queen Saka-aye (468-463 BC)
Nuri tomb 19
King Talakhamani (435-431 BC)
Nuri tomb 16
King Irike-Amannote and Queen [Ata]samalo 431-405 BC)
Some researchers think that Irike-amanote may have helped the Egyptians revolt against the invading Persians in 414-13 and 404 BC. Son was King Harsiyotef.
Nuri tomb 12
Harsiyotef [Harsiotef] and Queen Batahaliye (404-369 BC)
Harsiotef’s inscription is especially interesting because it describes the holy site of Gebel Barkal as it was in his day. He speaks of covering temples partly with gold, of laying out gardens and cattle pens, and of rebuilding the old royal palace there, which, he says, had sixty rooms. Son was Nastasen.
Nuri tomb 13
King Akhratan (or Akh-Aritene) (350-335 BC)
Nuri tomb 14
King Nastasen and Queen Sakhmakh (335-315 BC)
In his early reign, a prince from Egypt named Khababash invaded Lower Nubia. Prince Khababash came with transport ships, people, and cattle. Nastasen’s army defeated the invaders, took their treasure, and dedicated it to the god Amun. Ancient text mentions several other battles against desert peoples. These were also victorious and resulted in the capture of large numbers of cattle, goats, and gold.
Nuri tomb 15
King Aktisanes (310-279 BC)
Jebel Barkal tomb 11
King Aryamani (?)
Jebel Barkal tomb 14
King Kash[...] (?)
Jebel Barkal tomb 15
Meroitic Period (275 BC - 350 AD) -- Meroe
King Arnekhamani and Queen (235–218 BC)
Meroe North tomb 53
King Arqamani (218-200 BC)
Meroe North tomb 53
Arqamani builds large pyramids at Meroe. Kalabsha Temple decorations was attributed to the Nubian Pharaoh Arqamani from the 3rd century BC. The building seems to have been finished by the Romans with reference to Caesar Augustus. The Nubian king moves the royal necropolis from Napata to Meroe, a site between the fifth and sixth cataracts. Meroe, already an important center during the Napatan Period, becomes the capital of the Nubian kingdom. Meroe's location at the convergence of a network of caravan roads with trade routes along the White and Blue Niles makes it East Africa's most important center of trade. The Nubians of the Meroitic Period manufacture richly decorated textiles, graceful decorated ceramic vessels, objects of bronze and iron, exceptionally fine gold and cloisonné jewelry, and other luxury items.
Kandake Shanakdakhete (170–150 BC)
Kandake means "great woman" in Meroitic language.
Meroe North tomb 11
King Tanyidamani (110-90 BC)
Meroe North tomb 20
King Amanikhabale and Queen Kaditede (50-40 BC)
Meroe North tomb 2
Romans control Egypt in 30 BC. Meroitic kingdom never became part of the Roman
empire – although the Romans tried to make it part.
King Teriteqas and Candace Amanirenas (40-10 BC)
Meroe North tomb 14
Candace Amanishakheto (10 BC-1 AD)
Meroe North tomb 6
King Natekamani and Candace Amanitore (12-20 AD)
Son Prince Arikankharer
Bible reference: Acts 8:26-40.
Meroe North tomb 22
King Shorkaror (20-30 AD)
Shorkaror was the third son of Natakamani and Amanitore and the only one to become king.
King Amanitenmenmide (50-62 AD)
Meroe North tomb 17
Queen Amantombikhatashan (62-85 AD)
She is so far only known from her tomb in Meroe.
Prince Takidamani (140-155 AD)
Meroe West tomb 18
King Teqerideamani II (246-266 AD)
King Yesbokheamani (283-306 AD)
Meroe North tomb 24
Queen Lahideamani (306-308 AD)
Meroe North tomb 26
King Maleqorobar (314-329 AD)
Unknown Queen (308-320 AD)
Meroe North tomb 25
Akedaketival (329-340 AD)
350 AD - The traditional theory is that the kingdom at Meroe is destroyed during an invasion by Ezana of the Ethiopian kingdom of Axum. However, the Ethiopian account seems to describe the quelling of a rebellion in lands they already control. It also refers only to the Nuba, and makes no mention of the rulers of Meroe. However, no details of rulers are known after this date, making their survival unlikely.
domingo, 24 de janeiro de 2010
Kush/Nubia
Rulers of Egypt's 25th Dynasty
& Ancient Nubia
Anu Race: First Inhabitants of Egypt
2007 Note: Swiss archaeologists, Professor Charles Bonnet and Dr. Matthieu Honegger – have been revealing a royal palace, temples, extraordinary tombs and a massive ancient city on the banks of the Nile in Northern Sudan. Kerma’s civilization emerged out of an ancient pastoral culture that had flourished in that part of Sudan since at least 7500 BC when the first settlements were established. [website]
Chronology of Kerma -- according to archaeologist Charles Bonnet
A-Group 3800-3100 BC Cemetery L at Qustul, Nubia
Nubian Royal Statue Head Found
Kushite Statue, Old Kingdom, Sixth Dynasty, 2300 B.C.
King Awawa (2000-1850 BC)
Awawa (or Awa’a) is the earliest Nubian king we know by name. He was a powerful Nubian king ruling at Kerma.
King Nedjeh (1650-1550 BC)
Towards the end of the 13th Dynasty Egypt underwent great political upheaval and withdrew from Nubia. In the north the Hyksos took control of Lower Egypt. In the south Wawat and the fortresses, including Buhen, were occupied by Kush. Not all Egyptians fled. This stela is from a group of monuments from Buhen belonging to a single family who administered the fortress over several generations under Kushite rule. Some Egyptian soldiers stayed and worked for them. An inscription of one Egyptian soldier states that he served "as a valiant servant, … washing my feet in the waters of Kush, in the company of King Nedjeh."
Huge attack from the south on Elkab and Egypt by the Kingdom of Kush and its allies from the land of Punt, during the 17th dynasty (1575-1525 BC)
[Article]
Alara and Queen Kasaqa (785-760 BC)
Unites Upper Nubia. Founder of Nubian power in the Napatan dynasty.
Beginning of the 25th Dynasty Egypt
King Kashta and Queen Pebatjma (760-747 BC)
Brother of King Alara. Ruler of Napatan Kush and Egypt.
(Begin to conquer Egypt from the Libyan pharaohs, starting the 25th dynasty Kushite domination)
el-Kurru tomb 8
King Piankhy (Piye) and Queen Aqaluqa & Tabiry (747-716 BC)
(Son of Kashta)
Conquers all of Egypt and rules as pharaoh of Egypt until his death. He is portrayed as a ruler who did not glory in the smiting of his adversaries, as did other kings, but rather preferred treaties and alliances. His victories on a stela (called the Victory Stela ("Hear of what I did, more than the ancestors"), now in the Egyptian Museum. In 716 B.C. Piankhy died after a reign of over thirty years. He was buried in an Egyptian style pyramid tomb at el-Kurru, accompanied by a number of horses, which were greatly prized by the Nubians of the Napatan period. Daughters: Shepenupet II and Qalhata.
el-Kurru tomb 17
King Shabaka (Shabaqo) [Great Cat] (716-702 BC)
(Piankhy's brother); wife Queen Qalhata.
His was the Golden Age of the Nubian domination of Egypt. Throughout his reign Shabaka made many additions to Egyptian temples, such as those at Memphis, Abydos and Esna. Shabaka appointed his son, Horemakhet as High Priest of Amun at Thebes, although the real power in the region lay with his sister Amenirdas I, whose mortuary temple and tomb are at Medinet Habu. Pharaoh Shabaka is noted in the Old Testament, Genesis 10:7.
el-Kurru tomb 15
King Shebitqo and Queen Irty (702-690 BC)
Son of Shabaka.
The Rescue of Jerusalem: The Alliance Between Hebrews and Africans in 701 B.C.
el Kurru tomb 18
King Taharqa and Queen Naparaye (690-664 BC)
Son of Piye. Read about The Osirian Temple of Taharqa at Karnak in Egypt
Nuri tomb 1. 2007: Sculpture of King Taharqa Found at Karnak
King Tanwetamani wife Queen Malakaye (664-656 BC)
Nuri tomb 16
Son of Shabaka. Once the Assyrians had appointed Necho I as king and left Egypt, Tanwetamani marched down the Nile from Nubia and reoccupied all of Egypt including Memphis. Necho I, the Assyrians' representative, was killed in Tanwetamani's campaign. He became King of Egypt for 7 years. In reaction, the Assyrians returned to Egypt in force, defeated Tanwetamani's army in the Delta and advanced as far as south as Thebes, which they sacked.
The Assyrian reconquest effectively ended Nubian control over Egypt although Tanwetamani's authority was still recognized in Upper Egypt until his 8th Year in 656 BC when Psamtik I's navy peacefully took control of Thebes and effectively unified all of Egypt.
This is the end of the 25th Dynasty Egypt; withdrew to Nubia; moved their administrative center further south to Napata.
King Atlanersa and Queen Yeturow (653-643 BC)
Taharqa's son. Yeturow sister-wife, daughter of Tanwetamani.
Nuri tomb 20
King Senkamanisken and Queen Nasalsa (643-623 BC)
(father of Aspelta and Anlamani)
Nuri tomb 3
King Anlamani and Queen Madiken (623-593 BC)
Son of Senkamaniskens and Nasalsa.
Nuri tomb 6
King Aspelta and Queen Kheb (593-568 BC)
Nuri tomb 8
King Armantelqo and Queen Amanitakaye (568-555 BC)
King of Upper and Lower Egypt.
Nuri tomb 9
King Malonaqen and Queen Tagtal (555-542 BC)
Nuri tomb 5
King Analmaaye (542-538 BC)
Nuri tomb 18
King Amaniastabarqa (538-519 BC)
Nuri tomb 2
King Siospiqo (?)
Nuri tomb 4
King Nasakhma and Queen Saka-aye (468-463 BC)
Nuri tomb 19
King Talakhamani (435-431 BC)
Nuri tomb 16
King Irike-Amannote and Queen [Ata]samalo 431-405 BC)
Some researchers think that Irike-amanote may have helped the Egyptians revolt against the invading Persians in 414-13 and 404 BC. Son was King Harsiyotef.
Nuri tomb 12
Harsiyotef [Harsiotef] and Queen Batahaliye (404-369 BC)
Harsiotef’s inscription is especially interesting because it describes the holy site of Gebel Barkal as it was in his day. He speaks of covering temples partly with gold, of laying out gardens and cattle pens, and of rebuilding the old royal palace there, which, he says, had sixty rooms. Son was Nastasen.
Nuri tomb 13
King Akhratan (or Akh-Aritene) (350-335 BC)
Nuri tomb 14
King Nastasen and Queen Sakhmakh (335-315 BC)
In his early reign, a prince from Egypt named Khababash invaded Lower Nubia. Prince Khababash came with transport ships, people, and cattle. Nastasen’s army defeated the invaders, took their treasure, and dedicated it to the god Amun. Ancient text mentions several other battles against desert peoples. These were also victorious and resulted in the capture of large numbers of cattle, goats, and gold.
Nuri tomb 15
King Aktisanes (310-279 BC)
Jebel Barkal tomb 11
King Aryamani (?)
Jebel Barkal tomb 14
King Kash[...] (?)
Jebel Barkal tomb 15
Meroitic Period (275 BC - 350 AD) -- Meroe
King Arnekhamani and Queen (235–218 BC)
Meroe North tomb 53
King Arqamani (218-200 BC)
Meroe North tomb 53
Arqamani builds large pyramids at Meroe. Kalabsha Temple decorations was attributed to the Nubian Pharaoh Arqamani from the 3rd century BC. The building seems to have been finished by the Romans with reference to Caesar Augustus. The Nubian king moves the royal necropolis from Napata to Meroe, a site between the fifth and sixth cataracts. Meroe, already an important center during the Napatan Period, becomes the capital of the Nubian kingdom. Meroe's location at the convergence of a network of caravan roads with trade routes along the White and Blue Niles makes it East Africa's most important center of trade. The Nubians of the Meroitic Period manufacture richly decorated textiles, graceful decorated ceramic vessels, objects of bronze and iron, exceptionally fine gold and cloisonné jewelry, and other luxury items.
Kandake Shanakdakhete (170–150 BC)
Kandake means "great woman" in Meroitic language.
Meroe North tomb 11
King Tanyidamani (110-90 BC)
Meroe North tomb 20
King Amanikhabale and Queen Kaditede (50-40 BC)
Meroe North tomb 2
Romans control Egypt in 30 BC. Meroitic kingdom never became part of the Roman
empire – although the Romans tried to make it part.
King Teriteqas and Candace Amanirenas (40-10 BC)
Meroe North tomb 14
Candace Amanishakheto (10 BC-1 AD)
Meroe North tomb 6
King Natekamani and Candace Amanitore (12-20 AD)
Son Prince Arikankharer
Bible reference: Acts 8:26-40.
Meroe North tomb 22
King Shorkaror (20-30 AD)
Shorkaror was the third son of Natakamani and Amanitore and the only one to become king.
King Amanitenmenmide (50-62 AD)
Meroe North tomb 17
Queen Amantombikhatashan (62-85 AD)
She is so far only known from her tomb in Meroe.
Prince Takidamani (140-155 AD)
Meroe West tomb 18
King Teqerideamani II (246-266 AD)
King Yesbokheamani (283-306 AD)
Meroe North tomb 24
Queen Lahideamani (306-308 AD)
Meroe North tomb 26
King Maleqorobar (314-329 AD)
Unknown Queen (308-320 AD)
Meroe North tomb 25
Akedaketival (329-340 AD)
350 AD - The traditional theory is that the kingdom at Meroe is destroyed during an invasion by Ezana of the Ethiopian kingdom of Axum. However, the Ethiopian account seems to describe the quelling of a rebellion in lands they already control. It also refers only to the Nuba, and makes no mention of the rulers of Meroe. However, no details of rulers are known after this date, making their survival unlikely
& Ancient Nubia
Anu Race: First Inhabitants of Egypt
2007 Note: Swiss archaeologists, Professor Charles Bonnet and Dr. Matthieu Honegger – have been revealing a royal palace, temples, extraordinary tombs and a massive ancient city on the banks of the Nile in Northern Sudan. Kerma’s civilization emerged out of an ancient pastoral culture that had flourished in that part of Sudan since at least 7500 BC when the first settlements were established. [website]
Chronology of Kerma -- according to archaeologist Charles Bonnet
A-Group 3800-3100 BC Cemetery L at Qustul, Nubia
Nubian Royal Statue Head Found
Kushite Statue, Old Kingdom, Sixth Dynasty, 2300 B.C.
King Awawa (2000-1850 BC)
Awawa (or Awa’a) is the earliest Nubian king we know by name. He was a powerful Nubian king ruling at Kerma.
King Nedjeh (1650-1550 BC)
Towards the end of the 13th Dynasty Egypt underwent great political upheaval and withdrew from Nubia. In the north the Hyksos took control of Lower Egypt. In the south Wawat and the fortresses, including Buhen, were occupied by Kush. Not all Egyptians fled. This stela is from a group of monuments from Buhen belonging to a single family who administered the fortress over several generations under Kushite rule. Some Egyptian soldiers stayed and worked for them. An inscription of one Egyptian soldier states that he served "as a valiant servant, … washing my feet in the waters of Kush, in the company of King Nedjeh."
Huge attack from the south on Elkab and Egypt by the Kingdom of Kush and its allies from the land of Punt, during the 17th dynasty (1575-1525 BC)
[Article]
Alara and Queen Kasaqa (785-760 BC)
Unites Upper Nubia. Founder of Nubian power in the Napatan dynasty.
Beginning of the 25th Dynasty Egypt
King Kashta and Queen Pebatjma (760-747 BC)
Brother of King Alara. Ruler of Napatan Kush and Egypt.
(Begin to conquer Egypt from the Libyan pharaohs, starting the 25th dynasty Kushite domination)
el-Kurru tomb 8
King Piankhy (Piye) and Queen Aqaluqa & Tabiry (747-716 BC)
(Son of Kashta)
Conquers all of Egypt and rules as pharaoh of Egypt until his death. He is portrayed as a ruler who did not glory in the smiting of his adversaries, as did other kings, but rather preferred treaties and alliances. His victories on a stela (called the Victory Stela ("Hear of what I did, more than the ancestors"), now in the Egyptian Museum. In 716 B.C. Piankhy died after a reign of over thirty years. He was buried in an Egyptian style pyramid tomb at el-Kurru, accompanied by a number of horses, which were greatly prized by the Nubians of the Napatan period. Daughters: Shepenupet II and Qalhata.
el-Kurru tomb 17
King Shabaka (Shabaqo) [Great Cat] (716-702 BC)
(Piankhy's brother); wife Queen Qalhata.
His was the Golden Age of the Nubian domination of Egypt. Throughout his reign Shabaka made many additions to Egyptian temples, such as those at Memphis, Abydos and Esna. Shabaka appointed his son, Horemakhet as High Priest of Amun at Thebes, although the real power in the region lay with his sister Amenirdas I, whose mortuary temple and tomb are at Medinet Habu. Pharaoh Shabaka is noted in the Old Testament, Genesis 10:7.
el-Kurru tomb 15
King Shebitqo and Queen Irty (702-690 BC)
Son of Shabaka.
The Rescue of Jerusalem: The Alliance Between Hebrews and Africans in 701 B.C.
el Kurru tomb 18
King Taharqa and Queen Naparaye (690-664 BC)
Son of Piye. Read about The Osirian Temple of Taharqa at Karnak in Egypt
Nuri tomb 1. 2007: Sculpture of King Taharqa Found at Karnak
King Tanwetamani wife Queen Malakaye (664-656 BC)
Nuri tomb 16
Son of Shabaka. Once the Assyrians had appointed Necho I as king and left Egypt, Tanwetamani marched down the Nile from Nubia and reoccupied all of Egypt including Memphis. Necho I, the Assyrians' representative, was killed in Tanwetamani's campaign. He became King of Egypt for 7 years. In reaction, the Assyrians returned to Egypt in force, defeated Tanwetamani's army in the Delta and advanced as far as south as Thebes, which they sacked.
The Assyrian reconquest effectively ended Nubian control over Egypt although Tanwetamani's authority was still recognized in Upper Egypt until his 8th Year in 656 BC when Psamtik I's navy peacefully took control of Thebes and effectively unified all of Egypt.
This is the end of the 25th Dynasty Egypt; withdrew to Nubia; moved their administrative center further south to Napata.
King Atlanersa and Queen Yeturow (653-643 BC)
Taharqa's son. Yeturow sister-wife, daughter of Tanwetamani.
Nuri tomb 20
King Senkamanisken and Queen Nasalsa (643-623 BC)
(father of Aspelta and Anlamani)
Nuri tomb 3
King Anlamani and Queen Madiken (623-593 BC)
Son of Senkamaniskens and Nasalsa.
Nuri tomb 6
King Aspelta and Queen Kheb (593-568 BC)
Nuri tomb 8
King Armantelqo and Queen Amanitakaye (568-555 BC)
King of Upper and Lower Egypt.
Nuri tomb 9
King Malonaqen and Queen Tagtal (555-542 BC)
Nuri tomb 5
King Analmaaye (542-538 BC)
Nuri tomb 18
King Amaniastabarqa (538-519 BC)
Nuri tomb 2
King Siospiqo (?)
Nuri tomb 4
King Nasakhma and Queen Saka-aye (468-463 BC)
Nuri tomb 19
King Talakhamani (435-431 BC)
Nuri tomb 16
King Irike-Amannote and Queen [Ata]samalo 431-405 BC)
Some researchers think that Irike-amanote may have helped the Egyptians revolt against the invading Persians in 414-13 and 404 BC. Son was King Harsiyotef.
Nuri tomb 12
Harsiyotef [Harsiotef] and Queen Batahaliye (404-369 BC)
Harsiotef’s inscription is especially interesting because it describes the holy site of Gebel Barkal as it was in his day. He speaks of covering temples partly with gold, of laying out gardens and cattle pens, and of rebuilding the old royal palace there, which, he says, had sixty rooms. Son was Nastasen.
Nuri tomb 13
King Akhratan (or Akh-Aritene) (350-335 BC)
Nuri tomb 14
King Nastasen and Queen Sakhmakh (335-315 BC)
In his early reign, a prince from Egypt named Khababash invaded Lower Nubia. Prince Khababash came with transport ships, people, and cattle. Nastasen’s army defeated the invaders, took their treasure, and dedicated it to the god Amun. Ancient text mentions several other battles against desert peoples. These were also victorious and resulted in the capture of large numbers of cattle, goats, and gold.
Nuri tomb 15
King Aktisanes (310-279 BC)
Jebel Barkal tomb 11
King Aryamani (?)
Jebel Barkal tomb 14
King Kash[...] (?)
Jebel Barkal tomb 15
Meroitic Period (275 BC - 350 AD) -- Meroe
King Arnekhamani and Queen (235–218 BC)
Meroe North tomb 53
King Arqamani (218-200 BC)
Meroe North tomb 53
Arqamani builds large pyramids at Meroe. Kalabsha Temple decorations was attributed to the Nubian Pharaoh Arqamani from the 3rd century BC. The building seems to have been finished by the Romans with reference to Caesar Augustus. The Nubian king moves the royal necropolis from Napata to Meroe, a site between the fifth and sixth cataracts. Meroe, already an important center during the Napatan Period, becomes the capital of the Nubian kingdom. Meroe's location at the convergence of a network of caravan roads with trade routes along the White and Blue Niles makes it East Africa's most important center of trade. The Nubians of the Meroitic Period manufacture richly decorated textiles, graceful decorated ceramic vessels, objects of bronze and iron, exceptionally fine gold and cloisonné jewelry, and other luxury items.
Kandake Shanakdakhete (170–150 BC)
Kandake means "great woman" in Meroitic language.
Meroe North tomb 11
King Tanyidamani (110-90 BC)
Meroe North tomb 20
King Amanikhabale and Queen Kaditede (50-40 BC)
Meroe North tomb 2
Romans control Egypt in 30 BC. Meroitic kingdom never became part of the Roman
empire – although the Romans tried to make it part.
King Teriteqas and Candace Amanirenas (40-10 BC)
Meroe North tomb 14
Candace Amanishakheto (10 BC-1 AD)
Meroe North tomb 6
King Natekamani and Candace Amanitore (12-20 AD)
Son Prince Arikankharer
Bible reference: Acts 8:26-40.
Meroe North tomb 22
King Shorkaror (20-30 AD)
Shorkaror was the third son of Natakamani and Amanitore and the only one to become king.
King Amanitenmenmide (50-62 AD)
Meroe North tomb 17
Queen Amantombikhatashan (62-85 AD)
She is so far only known from her tomb in Meroe.
Prince Takidamani (140-155 AD)
Meroe West tomb 18
King Teqerideamani II (246-266 AD)
King Yesbokheamani (283-306 AD)
Meroe North tomb 24
Queen Lahideamani (306-308 AD)
Meroe North tomb 26
King Maleqorobar (314-329 AD)
Unknown Queen (308-320 AD)
Meroe North tomb 25
Akedaketival (329-340 AD)
350 AD - The traditional theory is that the kingdom at Meroe is destroyed during an invasion by Ezana of the Ethiopian kingdom of Axum. However, the Ethiopian account seems to describe the quelling of a rebellion in lands they already control. It also refers only to the Nuba, and makes no mention of the rulers of Meroe. However, no details of rulers are known after this date, making their survival unlikely
Kush/Nubia
http://wysinger.homestead.com/mapofnubia.html
Kush
Rulers of Egypt's 25th Dynasty
& Ancient Nubia
Anu Race: First Inhabitants of Egypt
2007 Note: Swiss archaeologists, Professor Charles Bonnet and Dr. Matthieu Honegger – have been revealing a royal palace, temples, extraordinary tombs and a massive ancient city on the banks of the Nile in Northern Sudan. Kerma’s civilization emerged out of an ancient pastoral culture that had flourished in that part of Sudan since at least 7500 BC when the first settlements were established. [website]
Chronology of Kerma -- according to archaeologist Charles Bonnet
A-Group 3800-3100 BC Cemetery L at Qustul, Nubia
Nubian Royal Statue Head Found
Kushite Statue, Old Kingdom, Sixth Dynasty, 2300 B.C.
King Awawa (2000-1850 BC)
Awawa (or Awa’a) is the earliest Nubian king we know by name. He was a powerful Nubian king ruling at Kerma.
King Nedjeh (1650-1550 BC)
Towards the end of the 13th Dynasty Egypt underwent great political upheaval and withdrew from Nubia. In the north the Hyksos took control of Lower Egypt. In the south Wawat and the fortresses, including Buhen, were occupied by Kush. Not all Egyptians fled. This stela is from a group of monuments from Buhen belonging to a single family who administered the fortress over several generations under Kushite rule. Some Egyptian soldiers stayed and worked for them. An inscription of one Egyptian soldier states that he served "as a valiant servant, … washing my feet in the waters of Kush, in the company of King Nedjeh."
Huge attack from the south on Elkab and Egypt by the Kingdom of Kush and its allies from the land of Punt, during the 17th dynasty (1575-1525 BC)
[Article]
Alara and Queen Kasaqa (785-760 BC)
Unites Upper Nubia. Founder of Nubian power in the Napatan dynasty.
Beginning of the 25th Dynasty Egypt
King Kashta and Queen Pebatjma (760-747 BC)
Brother of King Alara. Ruler of Napatan Kush and Egypt.
(Begin to conquer Egypt from the Libyan pharaohs, starting the 25th dynasty Kushite domination)
el-Kurru tomb 8
King Piankhy (Piye) and Queen Aqaluqa & Tabiry (747-716 BC)
(Son of Kashta)
Conquers all of Egypt and rules as pharaoh of Egypt until his death. He is portrayed as a ruler who did not glory in the smiting of his adversaries, as did other kings, but rather preferred treaties and alliances. His victories on a stela (called the Victory Stela ("Hear of what I did, more than the ancestors"), now in the Egyptian Museum. In 716 B.C. Piankhy died after a reign of over thirty years. He was buried in an Egyptian style pyramid tomb at el-Kurru, accompanied by a number of horses, which were greatly prized by the Nubians of the Napatan period. Daughters: Shepenupet II and Qalhata.
el-Kurru tomb 17
King Shabaka (Shabaqo) [Great Cat] (716-702 BC)
(Piankhy's brother); wife Queen Qalhata.
His was the Golden Age of the Nubian domination of Egypt. Throughout his reign Shabaka made many additions to Egyptian temples, such as those at Memphis, Abydos and Esna. Shabaka appointed his son, Horemakhet as High Priest of Amun at Thebes, although the real power in the region lay with his sister Amenirdas I, whose mortuary temple and tomb are at Medinet Habu. Pharaoh Shabaka is noted in the Old Testament, Genesis 10:7.
el-Kurru tomb 15
King Shebitqo and Queen Irty (702-690 BC)
Son of Shabaka.
The Rescue of Jerusalem: The Alliance Between Hebrews and Africans in 701 B.C.
el Kurru tomb 18
King Taharqa and Queen Naparaye (690-664 BC)
Son of Piye. Read about The Osirian Temple of Taharqa at Karnak in Egypt
Nuri tomb 1. 2007: Sculpture of King Taharqa Found at Karnak
King Tanwetamani wife Queen Malakaye (664-656 BC)
Nuri tomb 16
Son of Shabaka. Once the Assyrians had appointed Necho I as king and left Egypt, Tanwetamani marched down the Nile from Nubia and reoccupied all of Egypt including Memphis. Necho I, the Assyrians' representative, was killed in Tanwetamani's campaign. He became King of Egypt for 7 years. In reaction, the Assyrians returned to Egypt in force, defeated Tanwetamani's army in the Delta and advanced as far as south as Thebes, which they sacked.
The Assyrian reconquest effectively ended Nubian control over Egypt although Tanwetamani's authority was still recognized in Upper Egypt until his 8th Year in 656 BC when Psamtik I's navy peacefully took control of Thebes and effectively unified all of Egypt.
This is the end of the 25th Dynasty Egypt; withdrew to Nubia; moved their administrative center further south to Napata.
King Atlanersa and Queen Yeturow (653-643 BC)
Taharqa's son. Yeturow sister-wife, daughter of Tanwetamani.
Nuri tomb 20
King Senkamanisken and Queen Nasalsa (643-623 BC)
(father of Aspelta and Anlamani)
Nuri tomb 3
King Anlamani and Queen Madiken (623-593 BC)
Son of Senkamaniskens and Nasalsa.
Nuri tomb 6
King Aspelta and Queen Kheb (593-568 BC)
Nuri tomb 8
King Armantelqo and Queen Amanitakaye (568-555 BC)
King of Upper and Lower Egypt.
Nuri tomb 9
King Malonaqen and Queen Tagtal (555-542 BC)
Nuri tomb 5
King Analmaaye (542-538 BC)
Nuri tomb 18
King Amaniastabarqa (538-519 BC)
Nuri tomb 2
King Siospiqo (?)
Nuri tomb 4
King Nasakhma and Queen Saka-aye (468-463 BC)
Nuri tomb 19
King Talakhamani (435-431 BC)
Nuri tomb 16
King Irike-Amannote and Queen [Ata]samalo 431-405 BC)
Some researchers think that Irike-amanote may have helped the Egyptians revolt against the invading Persians in 414-13 and 404 BC. Son was King Harsiyotef.
Nuri tomb 12
Harsiyotef [Harsiotef] and Queen Batahaliye (404-369 BC)
Harsiotef’s inscription is especially interesting because it describes the holy site of Gebel Barkal as it was in his day. He speaks of covering temples partly with gold, of laying out gardens and cattle pens, and of rebuilding the old royal palace there, which, he says, had sixty rooms. Son was Nastasen.
Nuri tomb 13
King Akhratan (or Akh-Aritene) (350-335 BC)
Nuri tomb 14
King Nastasen and Queen Sakhmakh (335-315 BC)
In his early reign, a prince from Egypt named Khababash invaded Lower Nubia. Prince Khababash came with transport ships, people, and cattle. Nastasen’s army defeated the invaders, took their treasure, and dedicated it to the god Amun. Ancient text mentions several other battles against desert peoples. These were also victorious and resulted in the capture of large numbers of cattle, goats, and gold.
Nuri tomb 15
King Aktisanes (310-279 BC)
Jebel Barkal tomb 11
King Aryamani (?)
Jebel Barkal tomb 14
King Kash[...] (?)
Jebel Barkal tomb 15
Meroitic Period (275 BC - 350 AD) -- Meroe
King Arnekhamani and Queen (235–218 BC)
Meroe North tomb 53
King Arqamani (218-200 BC)
Meroe North tomb 53
Arqamani builds large pyramids at Meroe. Kalabsha Temple decorations was attributed to the Nubian Pharaoh Arqamani from the 3rd century BC. The building seems to have been finished by the Romans with reference to Caesar Augustus. The Nubian king moves the royal necropolis from Napata to Meroe, a site between the fifth and sixth cataracts. Meroe, already an important center during the Napatan Period, becomes the capital of the Nubian kingdom. Meroe's location at the convergence of a network of caravan roads with trade routes along the White and Blue Niles makes it East Africa's most important center of trade. The Nubians of the Meroitic Period manufacture richly decorated textiles, graceful decorated ceramic vessels, objects of bronze and iron, exceptionally fine gold and cloisonné jewelry, and other luxury items.
Kandake Shanakdakhete (170–150 BC)
Kandake means "great woman" in Meroitic language.
Meroe North tomb 11
King Tanyidamani (110-90 BC)
Meroe North tomb 20
King Amanikhabale and Queen Kaditede (50-40 BC)
Meroe North tomb 2
Romans control Egypt in 30 BC. Meroitic kingdom never became part of the Roman
empire – although the Romans tried to make it part.
King Teriteqas and Candace Amanirenas (40-10 BC)
Meroe North tomb 14
Candace Amanishakheto (10 BC-1 AD)
Meroe North tomb 6
King Natekamani and Candace Amanitore (12-20 AD)
Son Prince Arikankharer
Bible reference: Acts 8:26-40.
Meroe North tomb 22
King Shorkaror (20-30 AD)
Shorkaror was the third son of Natakamani and Amanitore and the only one to become king.
King Amanitenmenmide (50-62 AD)
Meroe North tomb 17
Queen Amantombikhatashan (62-85 AD)
She is so far only known from her tomb in Meroe.
Prince Takidamani (140-155 AD)
Meroe West tomb 18
King Teqerideamani II (246-266 AD)
King Yesbokheamani (283-306 AD)
Meroe North tomb 24
Queen Lahideamani (306-308 AD)
Meroe North tomb 26
King Maleqorobar (314-329 AD)
Unknown Queen (308-320 AD)
Meroe North tomb 25
Akedaketival (329-340 AD)
350 AD - The traditional theory is that the kingdom at Meroe is destroyed during an invasion by Ezana of the Ethiopian kingdom of Axum. However, the Ethiopian account seems to describe the quelling of a rebellion in lands they already control. It also refers only to the Nuba, and makes no mention of the rulers of Meroe. However, no details of rulers are known after this date, making their survival unlikely.
Kush
Rulers of Egypt's 25th Dynasty
& Ancient Nubia
Anu Race: First Inhabitants of Egypt
2007 Note: Swiss archaeologists, Professor Charles Bonnet and Dr. Matthieu Honegger – have been revealing a royal palace, temples, extraordinary tombs and a massive ancient city on the banks of the Nile in Northern Sudan. Kerma’s civilization emerged out of an ancient pastoral culture that had flourished in that part of Sudan since at least 7500 BC when the first settlements were established. [website]
Chronology of Kerma -- according to archaeologist Charles Bonnet
A-Group 3800-3100 BC Cemetery L at Qustul, Nubia
Nubian Royal Statue Head Found
Kushite Statue, Old Kingdom, Sixth Dynasty, 2300 B.C.
King Awawa (2000-1850 BC)
Awawa (or Awa’a) is the earliest Nubian king we know by name. He was a powerful Nubian king ruling at Kerma.
King Nedjeh (1650-1550 BC)
Towards the end of the 13th Dynasty Egypt underwent great political upheaval and withdrew from Nubia. In the north the Hyksos took control of Lower Egypt. In the south Wawat and the fortresses, including Buhen, were occupied by Kush. Not all Egyptians fled. This stela is from a group of monuments from Buhen belonging to a single family who administered the fortress over several generations under Kushite rule. Some Egyptian soldiers stayed and worked for them. An inscription of one Egyptian soldier states that he served "as a valiant servant, … washing my feet in the waters of Kush, in the company of King Nedjeh."
Huge attack from the south on Elkab and Egypt by the Kingdom of Kush and its allies from the land of Punt, during the 17th dynasty (1575-1525 BC)
[Article]
Alara and Queen Kasaqa (785-760 BC)
Unites Upper Nubia. Founder of Nubian power in the Napatan dynasty.
Beginning of the 25th Dynasty Egypt
King Kashta and Queen Pebatjma (760-747 BC)
Brother of King Alara. Ruler of Napatan Kush and Egypt.
(Begin to conquer Egypt from the Libyan pharaohs, starting the 25th dynasty Kushite domination)
el-Kurru tomb 8
King Piankhy (Piye) and Queen Aqaluqa & Tabiry (747-716 BC)
(Son of Kashta)
Conquers all of Egypt and rules as pharaoh of Egypt until his death. He is portrayed as a ruler who did not glory in the smiting of his adversaries, as did other kings, but rather preferred treaties and alliances. His victories on a stela (called the Victory Stela ("Hear of what I did, more than the ancestors"), now in the Egyptian Museum. In 716 B.C. Piankhy died after a reign of over thirty years. He was buried in an Egyptian style pyramid tomb at el-Kurru, accompanied by a number of horses, which were greatly prized by the Nubians of the Napatan period. Daughters: Shepenupet II and Qalhata.
el-Kurru tomb 17
King Shabaka (Shabaqo) [Great Cat] (716-702 BC)
(Piankhy's brother); wife Queen Qalhata.
His was the Golden Age of the Nubian domination of Egypt. Throughout his reign Shabaka made many additions to Egyptian temples, such as those at Memphis, Abydos and Esna. Shabaka appointed his son, Horemakhet as High Priest of Amun at Thebes, although the real power in the region lay with his sister Amenirdas I, whose mortuary temple and tomb are at Medinet Habu. Pharaoh Shabaka is noted in the Old Testament, Genesis 10:7.
el-Kurru tomb 15
King Shebitqo and Queen Irty (702-690 BC)
Son of Shabaka.
The Rescue of Jerusalem: The Alliance Between Hebrews and Africans in 701 B.C.
el Kurru tomb 18
King Taharqa and Queen Naparaye (690-664 BC)
Son of Piye. Read about The Osirian Temple of Taharqa at Karnak in Egypt
Nuri tomb 1. 2007: Sculpture of King Taharqa Found at Karnak
King Tanwetamani wife Queen Malakaye (664-656 BC)
Nuri tomb 16
Son of Shabaka. Once the Assyrians had appointed Necho I as king and left Egypt, Tanwetamani marched down the Nile from Nubia and reoccupied all of Egypt including Memphis. Necho I, the Assyrians' representative, was killed in Tanwetamani's campaign. He became King of Egypt for 7 years. In reaction, the Assyrians returned to Egypt in force, defeated Tanwetamani's army in the Delta and advanced as far as south as Thebes, which they sacked.
The Assyrian reconquest effectively ended Nubian control over Egypt although Tanwetamani's authority was still recognized in Upper Egypt until his 8th Year in 656 BC when Psamtik I's navy peacefully took control of Thebes and effectively unified all of Egypt.
This is the end of the 25th Dynasty Egypt; withdrew to Nubia; moved their administrative center further south to Napata.
King Atlanersa and Queen Yeturow (653-643 BC)
Taharqa's son. Yeturow sister-wife, daughter of Tanwetamani.
Nuri tomb 20
King Senkamanisken and Queen Nasalsa (643-623 BC)
(father of Aspelta and Anlamani)
Nuri tomb 3
King Anlamani and Queen Madiken (623-593 BC)
Son of Senkamaniskens and Nasalsa.
Nuri tomb 6
King Aspelta and Queen Kheb (593-568 BC)
Nuri tomb 8
King Armantelqo and Queen Amanitakaye (568-555 BC)
King of Upper and Lower Egypt.
Nuri tomb 9
King Malonaqen and Queen Tagtal (555-542 BC)
Nuri tomb 5
King Analmaaye (542-538 BC)
Nuri tomb 18
King Amaniastabarqa (538-519 BC)
Nuri tomb 2
King Siospiqo (?)
Nuri tomb 4
King Nasakhma and Queen Saka-aye (468-463 BC)
Nuri tomb 19
King Talakhamani (435-431 BC)
Nuri tomb 16
King Irike-Amannote and Queen [Ata]samalo 431-405 BC)
Some researchers think that Irike-amanote may have helped the Egyptians revolt against the invading Persians in 414-13 and 404 BC. Son was King Harsiyotef.
Nuri tomb 12
Harsiyotef [Harsiotef] and Queen Batahaliye (404-369 BC)
Harsiotef’s inscription is especially interesting because it describes the holy site of Gebel Barkal as it was in his day. He speaks of covering temples partly with gold, of laying out gardens and cattle pens, and of rebuilding the old royal palace there, which, he says, had sixty rooms. Son was Nastasen.
Nuri tomb 13
King Akhratan (or Akh-Aritene) (350-335 BC)
Nuri tomb 14
King Nastasen and Queen Sakhmakh (335-315 BC)
In his early reign, a prince from Egypt named Khababash invaded Lower Nubia. Prince Khababash came with transport ships, people, and cattle. Nastasen’s army defeated the invaders, took their treasure, and dedicated it to the god Amun. Ancient text mentions several other battles against desert peoples. These were also victorious and resulted in the capture of large numbers of cattle, goats, and gold.
Nuri tomb 15
King Aktisanes (310-279 BC)
Jebel Barkal tomb 11
King Aryamani (?)
Jebel Barkal tomb 14
King Kash[...] (?)
Jebel Barkal tomb 15
Meroitic Period (275 BC - 350 AD) -- Meroe
King Arnekhamani and Queen (235–218 BC)
Meroe North tomb 53
King Arqamani (218-200 BC)
Meroe North tomb 53
Arqamani builds large pyramids at Meroe. Kalabsha Temple decorations was attributed to the Nubian Pharaoh Arqamani from the 3rd century BC. The building seems to have been finished by the Romans with reference to Caesar Augustus. The Nubian king moves the royal necropolis from Napata to Meroe, a site between the fifth and sixth cataracts. Meroe, already an important center during the Napatan Period, becomes the capital of the Nubian kingdom. Meroe's location at the convergence of a network of caravan roads with trade routes along the White and Blue Niles makes it East Africa's most important center of trade. The Nubians of the Meroitic Period manufacture richly decorated textiles, graceful decorated ceramic vessels, objects of bronze and iron, exceptionally fine gold and cloisonné jewelry, and other luxury items.
Kandake Shanakdakhete (170–150 BC)
Kandake means "great woman" in Meroitic language.
Meroe North tomb 11
King Tanyidamani (110-90 BC)
Meroe North tomb 20
King Amanikhabale and Queen Kaditede (50-40 BC)
Meroe North tomb 2
Romans control Egypt in 30 BC. Meroitic kingdom never became part of the Roman
empire – although the Romans tried to make it part.
King Teriteqas and Candace Amanirenas (40-10 BC)
Meroe North tomb 14
Candace Amanishakheto (10 BC-1 AD)
Meroe North tomb 6
King Natekamani and Candace Amanitore (12-20 AD)
Son Prince Arikankharer
Bible reference: Acts 8:26-40.
Meroe North tomb 22
King Shorkaror (20-30 AD)
Shorkaror was the third son of Natakamani and Amanitore and the only one to become king.
King Amanitenmenmide (50-62 AD)
Meroe North tomb 17
Queen Amantombikhatashan (62-85 AD)
She is so far only known from her tomb in Meroe.
Prince Takidamani (140-155 AD)
Meroe West tomb 18
King Teqerideamani II (246-266 AD)
King Yesbokheamani (283-306 AD)
Meroe North tomb 24
Queen Lahideamani (306-308 AD)
Meroe North tomb 26
King Maleqorobar (314-329 AD)
Unknown Queen (308-320 AD)
Meroe North tomb 25
Akedaketival (329-340 AD)
350 AD - The traditional theory is that the kingdom at Meroe is destroyed during an invasion by Ezana of the Ethiopian kingdom of Axum. However, the Ethiopian account seems to describe the quelling of a rebellion in lands they already control. It also refers only to the Nuba, and makes no mention of the rulers of Meroe. However, no details of rulers are known after this date, making their survival unlikely.
sexta-feira, 22 de janeiro de 2010
Nubian Kings
http://wysinger.homestead.com/mapofnubia.html
Kush
Rulers of Egypt's 25th Dynasty
& Ancient Nubia
Anu Race: First Inhabitants of Egypt
2007 Note: Swiss archaeologists, Professor Charles Bonnet and Dr. Matthieu Honegger – have been revealing a royal palace, temples, extraordinary tombs and a massive ancient city on the banks of the Nile in Northern Sudan. Kerma’s civilization emerged out of an ancient pastoral culture that had flourished in that part of Sudan since at least 7500 BC when the first settlements were established. [website]
Chronology of Kerma -- according to archaeologist Charles Bonnet
A-Group 3800-3100 BC Cemetery L at Qustul, Nubia
Nubian Royal Statue Head Found
Kushite Statue, Old Kingdom, Sixth Dynasty, 2300 B.C.
King Awawa (2000-1850 BC)
Awawa (or Awa’a) is the earliest Nubian king we know by name. He was a powerful Nubian king ruling at Kerma.
King Nedjeh (1650-1550 BC)
Towards the end of the 13th Dynasty Egypt underwent great political upheaval and withdrew from Nubia. In the north the Hyksos took control of Lower Egypt. In the south Wawat and the fortresses, including Buhen, were occupied by Kush. Not all Egyptians fled. This stela is from a group of monuments from Buhen belonging to a single family who administered the fortress over several generations under Kushite rule. Some Egyptian soldiers stayed and worked for them. An inscription of one Egyptian soldier states that he served "as a valiant servant, … washing my feet in the waters of Kush, in the company of King Nedjeh."
Huge attack from the south on Elkab and Egypt by the Kingdom of Kush and its allies from the land of Punt, during the 17th dynasty (1575-1525 BC)
[Article]
Alara and Queen Kasaqa (785-760 BC)
Unites Upper Nubia. Founder of Nubian power in the Napatan dynasty.
Beginning of the 25th Dynasty Egypt
King Kashta and Queen Pebatjma (760-747 BC)
Brother of King Alara. Ruler of Napatan Kush and Egypt.
(Begin to conquer Egypt from the Libyan pharaohs, starting the 25th dynasty Kushite domination)
el-Kurru tomb 8
King Piankhy (Piye) and Queen Aqaluqa & Tabiry (747-716 BC)
(Son of Kashta)
Conquers all of Egypt and rules as pharaoh of Egypt until his death. He is portrayed as a ruler who did not glory in the smiting of his adversaries, as did other kings, but rather preferred treaties and alliances. His victories on a stela (called the Victory Stela ("Hear of what I did, more than the ancestors"), now in the Egyptian Museum. In 716 B.C. Piankhy died after a reign of over thirty years. He was buried in an Egyptian style pyramid tomb at el-Kurru, accompanied by a number of horses, which were greatly prized by the Nubians of the Napatan period. Daughters: Shepenupet II and Qalhata.
el-Kurru tomb 17
King Shabaka (Shabaqo) [Great Cat] (716-702 BC)
(Piankhy's brother); wife Queen Qalhata.
His was the Golden Age of the Nubian domination of Egypt. Throughout his reign Shabaka made many additions to Egyptian temples, such as those at Memphis, Abydos and Esna. Shabaka appointed his son, Horemakhet as High Priest of Amun at Thebes, although the real power in the region lay with his sister Amenirdas I, whose mortuary temple and tomb are at Medinet Habu. Pharaoh Shabaka is noted in the Old Testament, Genesis 10:7.
el-Kurru tomb 15
King Shebitqo and Queen Irty (702-690 BC)
Son of Shabaka.
The Rescue of Jerusalem: The Alliance Between Hebrews and Africans in 701 B.C.
el Kurru tomb 18
King Taharqa and Queen Naparaye (690-664 BC)
Son of Piye. Read about The Osirian Temple of Taharqa at Karnak in Egypt
Nuri tomb 1. 2007: Sculpture of King Taharqa Found at Karnak
King Tanwetamani wife Queen Malakaye (664-656 BC)
Nuri tomb 16
Son of Shabaka. Once the Assyrians had appointed Necho I as king and left Egypt, Tanwetamani marched down the Nile from Nubia and reoccupied all of Egypt including Memphis. Necho I, the Assyrians' representative, was killed in Tanwetamani's campaign. He became King of Egypt for 7 years. In reaction, the Assyrians returned to Egypt in force, defeated Tanwetamani's army in the Delta and advanced as far as south as Thebes, which they sacked.
The Assyrian reconquest effectively ended Nubian control over Egypt although Tanwetamani's authority was still recognized in Upper Egypt until his 8th Year in 656 BC when Psamtik I's navy peacefully took control of Thebes and effectively unified all of Egypt.
This is the end of the 25th Dynasty Egypt; withdrew to Nubia; moved their administrative center further south to Napata.
King Atlanersa and Queen Yeturow (653-643 BC)
Taharqa's son. Yeturow sister-wife, daughter of Tanwetamani.
Nuri tomb 20
King Senkamanisken and Queen Nasalsa (643-623 BC)
(father of Aspelta and Anlamani)
Nuri tomb 3
King Anlamani and Queen Madiken (623-593 BC)
Son of Senkamaniskens and Nasalsa.
Nuri tomb 6
King Aspelta and Queen Kheb (593-568 BC)
Nuri tomb 8
King Armantelqo and Queen Amanitakaye (568-555 BC)
King of Upper and Lower Egypt.
Nuri tomb 9
King Malonaqen and Queen Tagtal (555-542 BC)
Nuri tomb 5
King Analmaaye (542-538 BC)
Nuri tomb 18
King Amaniastabarqa (538-519 BC)
Nuri tomb 2
King Siospiqo (?)
Nuri tomb 4
King Nasakhma and Queen Saka-aye (468-463 BC)
Nuri tomb 19
King Talakhamani (435-431 BC)
Nuri tomb 16
King Irike-Amannote and Queen [Ata]samalo 431-405 BC)
Some researchers think that Irike-amanote may have helped the Egyptians revolt against the invading Persians in 414-13 and 404 BC. Son was King Harsiyotef.
Nuri tomb 12
Harsiyotef [Harsiotef] and Queen Batahaliye (404-369 BC)
Harsiotef’s inscription is especially interesting because it describes the holy site of Gebel Barkal as it was in his day. He speaks of covering temples partly with gold, of laying out gardens and cattle pens, and of rebuilding the old royal palace there, which, he says, had sixty rooms. Son was Nastasen.
Nuri tomb 13
King Akhratan (or Akh-Aritene) (350-335 BC)
Nuri tomb 14
King Nastasen and Queen Sakhmakh (335-315 BC)
In his early reign, a prince from Egypt named Khababash invaded Lower Nubia. Prince Khababash came with transport ships, people, and cattle. Nastasen’s army defeated the invaders, took their treasure, and dedicated it to the god Amun. Ancient text mentions several other battles against desert peoples. These were also victorious and resulted in the capture of large numbers of cattle, goats, and gold.
Nuri tomb 15
King Aktisanes (310-279 BC)
Jebel Barkal tomb 11
King Aryamani (?)
Jebel Barkal tomb 14
King Kash[...] (?)
Jebel Barkal tomb 15
Meroitic Period (275 BC - 350 AD) -- Meroe
King Arnekhamani and Queen (235–218 BC)
Meroe North tomb 53
King Arqamani (218-200 BC)
Meroe North tomb 53
Arqamani builds large pyramids at Meroe. Kalabsha Temple decorations was attributed to the Nubian Pharaoh Arqamani from the 3rd century BC. The building seems to have been finished by the Romans with reference to Caesar Augustus. The Nubian king moves the royal necropolis from Napata to Meroe, a site between the fifth and sixth cataracts. Meroe, already an important center during the Napatan Period, becomes the capital of the Nubian kingdom. Meroe's location at the convergence of a network of caravan roads with trade routes along the White and Blue Niles makes it East Africa's most important center of trade. The Nubians of the Meroitic Period manufacture richly decorated textiles, graceful decorated ceramic vessels, objects of bronze and iron, exceptionally fine gold and cloisonné jewelry, and other luxury items.
Kandake Shanakdakhete (170–150 BC)
Kandake means "great woman" in Meroitic language.
Meroe North tomb 11
King Tanyidamani (110-90 BC)
Meroe North tomb 20
King Amanikhabale and Queen Kaditede (50-40 BC)
Meroe North tomb 2
Romans control Egypt in 30 BC. Meroitic kingdom never became part of the Roman
empire – although the Romans tried to make it part.
King Teriteqas and Candace Amanirenas (40-10 BC)
Meroe North tomb 14
Candace Amanishakheto (10 BC-1 AD)
Meroe North tomb 6
King Natekamani and Candace Amanitore (12-20 AD)
Son Prince Arikankharer
Bible reference: Acts 8:26-40.
Meroe North tomb 22
King Shorkaror (20-30 AD)
Shorkaror was the third son of Natakamani and Amanitore and the only one to become king.
King Amanitenmenmide (50-62 AD)
Meroe North tomb 17
Queen Amantombikhatashan (62-85 AD)
She is so far only known from her tomb in Meroe.
Prince Takidamani (140-155 AD)
Meroe West tomb 18
King Teqerideamani II (246-266 AD)
King Yesbokheamani (283-306 AD)
Meroe North tomb 24
Queen Lahideamani (306-308 AD)
Meroe North tomb 26
King Maleqorobar (314-329 AD)
Unknown Queen (308-320 AD)
Meroe North tomb 25
Akedaketival (329-340 AD)
350 AD - The traditional theory is that the kingdom at Meroe is destroyed during an invasion by Ezana of the Ethiopian kingdom of Axum. However, the Ethiopian account seems to describe the quelling of a rebellion in lands they already control. It also refers only to the Nuba, and makes no mention of the rulers of Meroe. However, no details of rulers are known after this date, making their survival unlikely
Kush
Rulers of Egypt's 25th Dynasty
& Ancient Nubia
Anu Race: First Inhabitants of Egypt
2007 Note: Swiss archaeologists, Professor Charles Bonnet and Dr. Matthieu Honegger – have been revealing a royal palace, temples, extraordinary tombs and a massive ancient city on the banks of the Nile in Northern Sudan. Kerma’s civilization emerged out of an ancient pastoral culture that had flourished in that part of Sudan since at least 7500 BC when the first settlements were established. [website]
Chronology of Kerma -- according to archaeologist Charles Bonnet
A-Group 3800-3100 BC Cemetery L at Qustul, Nubia
Nubian Royal Statue Head Found
Kushite Statue, Old Kingdom, Sixth Dynasty, 2300 B.C.
King Awawa (2000-1850 BC)
Awawa (or Awa’a) is the earliest Nubian king we know by name. He was a powerful Nubian king ruling at Kerma.
King Nedjeh (1650-1550 BC)
Towards the end of the 13th Dynasty Egypt underwent great political upheaval and withdrew from Nubia. In the north the Hyksos took control of Lower Egypt. In the south Wawat and the fortresses, including Buhen, were occupied by Kush. Not all Egyptians fled. This stela is from a group of monuments from Buhen belonging to a single family who administered the fortress over several generations under Kushite rule. Some Egyptian soldiers stayed and worked for them. An inscription of one Egyptian soldier states that he served "as a valiant servant, … washing my feet in the waters of Kush, in the company of King Nedjeh."
Huge attack from the south on Elkab and Egypt by the Kingdom of Kush and its allies from the land of Punt, during the 17th dynasty (1575-1525 BC)
[Article]
Alara and Queen Kasaqa (785-760 BC)
Unites Upper Nubia. Founder of Nubian power in the Napatan dynasty.
Beginning of the 25th Dynasty Egypt
King Kashta and Queen Pebatjma (760-747 BC)
Brother of King Alara. Ruler of Napatan Kush and Egypt.
(Begin to conquer Egypt from the Libyan pharaohs, starting the 25th dynasty Kushite domination)
el-Kurru tomb 8
King Piankhy (Piye) and Queen Aqaluqa & Tabiry (747-716 BC)
(Son of Kashta)
Conquers all of Egypt and rules as pharaoh of Egypt until his death. He is portrayed as a ruler who did not glory in the smiting of his adversaries, as did other kings, but rather preferred treaties and alliances. His victories on a stela (called the Victory Stela ("Hear of what I did, more than the ancestors"), now in the Egyptian Museum. In 716 B.C. Piankhy died after a reign of over thirty years. He was buried in an Egyptian style pyramid tomb at el-Kurru, accompanied by a number of horses, which were greatly prized by the Nubians of the Napatan period. Daughters: Shepenupet II and Qalhata.
el-Kurru tomb 17
King Shabaka (Shabaqo) [Great Cat] (716-702 BC)
(Piankhy's brother); wife Queen Qalhata.
His was the Golden Age of the Nubian domination of Egypt. Throughout his reign Shabaka made many additions to Egyptian temples, such as those at Memphis, Abydos and Esna. Shabaka appointed his son, Horemakhet as High Priest of Amun at Thebes, although the real power in the region lay with his sister Amenirdas I, whose mortuary temple and tomb are at Medinet Habu. Pharaoh Shabaka is noted in the Old Testament, Genesis 10:7.
el-Kurru tomb 15
King Shebitqo and Queen Irty (702-690 BC)
Son of Shabaka.
The Rescue of Jerusalem: The Alliance Between Hebrews and Africans in 701 B.C.
el Kurru tomb 18
King Taharqa and Queen Naparaye (690-664 BC)
Son of Piye. Read about The Osirian Temple of Taharqa at Karnak in Egypt
Nuri tomb 1. 2007: Sculpture of King Taharqa Found at Karnak
King Tanwetamani wife Queen Malakaye (664-656 BC)
Nuri tomb 16
Son of Shabaka. Once the Assyrians had appointed Necho I as king and left Egypt, Tanwetamani marched down the Nile from Nubia and reoccupied all of Egypt including Memphis. Necho I, the Assyrians' representative, was killed in Tanwetamani's campaign. He became King of Egypt for 7 years. In reaction, the Assyrians returned to Egypt in force, defeated Tanwetamani's army in the Delta and advanced as far as south as Thebes, which they sacked.
The Assyrian reconquest effectively ended Nubian control over Egypt although Tanwetamani's authority was still recognized in Upper Egypt until his 8th Year in 656 BC when Psamtik I's navy peacefully took control of Thebes and effectively unified all of Egypt.
This is the end of the 25th Dynasty Egypt; withdrew to Nubia; moved their administrative center further south to Napata.
King Atlanersa and Queen Yeturow (653-643 BC)
Taharqa's son. Yeturow sister-wife, daughter of Tanwetamani.
Nuri tomb 20
King Senkamanisken and Queen Nasalsa (643-623 BC)
(father of Aspelta and Anlamani)
Nuri tomb 3
King Anlamani and Queen Madiken (623-593 BC)
Son of Senkamaniskens and Nasalsa.
Nuri tomb 6
King Aspelta and Queen Kheb (593-568 BC)
Nuri tomb 8
King Armantelqo and Queen Amanitakaye (568-555 BC)
King of Upper and Lower Egypt.
Nuri tomb 9
King Malonaqen and Queen Tagtal (555-542 BC)
Nuri tomb 5
King Analmaaye (542-538 BC)
Nuri tomb 18
King Amaniastabarqa (538-519 BC)
Nuri tomb 2
King Siospiqo (?)
Nuri tomb 4
King Nasakhma and Queen Saka-aye (468-463 BC)
Nuri tomb 19
King Talakhamani (435-431 BC)
Nuri tomb 16
King Irike-Amannote and Queen [Ata]samalo 431-405 BC)
Some researchers think that Irike-amanote may have helped the Egyptians revolt against the invading Persians in 414-13 and 404 BC. Son was King Harsiyotef.
Nuri tomb 12
Harsiyotef [Harsiotef] and Queen Batahaliye (404-369 BC)
Harsiotef’s inscription is especially interesting because it describes the holy site of Gebel Barkal as it was in his day. He speaks of covering temples partly with gold, of laying out gardens and cattle pens, and of rebuilding the old royal palace there, which, he says, had sixty rooms. Son was Nastasen.
Nuri tomb 13
King Akhratan (or Akh-Aritene) (350-335 BC)
Nuri tomb 14
King Nastasen and Queen Sakhmakh (335-315 BC)
In his early reign, a prince from Egypt named Khababash invaded Lower Nubia. Prince Khababash came with transport ships, people, and cattle. Nastasen’s army defeated the invaders, took their treasure, and dedicated it to the god Amun. Ancient text mentions several other battles against desert peoples. These were also victorious and resulted in the capture of large numbers of cattle, goats, and gold.
Nuri tomb 15
King Aktisanes (310-279 BC)
Jebel Barkal tomb 11
King Aryamani (?)
Jebel Barkal tomb 14
King Kash[...] (?)
Jebel Barkal tomb 15
Meroitic Period (275 BC - 350 AD) -- Meroe
King Arnekhamani and Queen (235–218 BC)
Meroe North tomb 53
King Arqamani (218-200 BC)
Meroe North tomb 53
Arqamani builds large pyramids at Meroe. Kalabsha Temple decorations was attributed to the Nubian Pharaoh Arqamani from the 3rd century BC. The building seems to have been finished by the Romans with reference to Caesar Augustus. The Nubian king moves the royal necropolis from Napata to Meroe, a site between the fifth and sixth cataracts. Meroe, already an important center during the Napatan Period, becomes the capital of the Nubian kingdom. Meroe's location at the convergence of a network of caravan roads with trade routes along the White and Blue Niles makes it East Africa's most important center of trade. The Nubians of the Meroitic Period manufacture richly decorated textiles, graceful decorated ceramic vessels, objects of bronze and iron, exceptionally fine gold and cloisonné jewelry, and other luxury items.
Kandake Shanakdakhete (170–150 BC)
Kandake means "great woman" in Meroitic language.
Meroe North tomb 11
King Tanyidamani (110-90 BC)
Meroe North tomb 20
King Amanikhabale and Queen Kaditede (50-40 BC)
Meroe North tomb 2
Romans control Egypt in 30 BC. Meroitic kingdom never became part of the Roman
empire – although the Romans tried to make it part.
King Teriteqas and Candace Amanirenas (40-10 BC)
Meroe North tomb 14
Candace Amanishakheto (10 BC-1 AD)
Meroe North tomb 6
King Natekamani and Candace Amanitore (12-20 AD)
Son Prince Arikankharer
Bible reference: Acts 8:26-40.
Meroe North tomb 22
King Shorkaror (20-30 AD)
Shorkaror was the third son of Natakamani and Amanitore and the only one to become king.
King Amanitenmenmide (50-62 AD)
Meroe North tomb 17
Queen Amantombikhatashan (62-85 AD)
She is so far only known from her tomb in Meroe.
Prince Takidamani (140-155 AD)
Meroe West tomb 18
King Teqerideamani II (246-266 AD)
King Yesbokheamani (283-306 AD)
Meroe North tomb 24
Queen Lahideamani (306-308 AD)
Meroe North tomb 26
King Maleqorobar (314-329 AD)
Unknown Queen (308-320 AD)
Meroe North tomb 25
Akedaketival (329-340 AD)
350 AD - The traditional theory is that the kingdom at Meroe is destroyed during an invasion by Ezana of the Ethiopian kingdom of Axum. However, the Ethiopian account seems to describe the quelling of a rebellion in lands they already control. It also refers only to the Nuba, and makes no mention of the rulers of Meroe. However, no details of rulers are known after this date, making their survival unlikely
quinta-feira, 21 de janeiro de 2010
Cleopatra VII
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cleopatra_VII
Cleopatra VII
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
"Cleopatra" redirects here. For other uses, see Cleopatra (disambiguation).
Cleopatra VII
Queen of Egypt
Reign
51 BC–12 August 30 BCPtolemy XIII (51 BC–47 BC)Ptolemy XIV (47 BC–44 BC)Caesarion (44 BC–30 BC)
Full name
Cleopatra VII Thea Philopator
Born
January 69 BC
Died
August 12, 30 BC (aged 39)
Place of death
Alexandria
Predecessor
Ptolemy XII Auletes
Successor
Office abolished (Roman province)
Consort
Ptolemy XIII Theos PhilopatorPtolemy XIVJulius Caesar (de facto)Mark Antony (de facto)
Offspring
Ptolemy Caesar (Caesarion)Cleopatra Selene IIAlexander HeliosPtolemy Philadelphus
Dynasty
Ptolemaic
Father
Ptolemy XII Auletes
Mother
Cleopatra V of Egypt
These articles cover Ancient Rome and the fall of the Republic
Roman Republic, Mark Antony, Cleopatra VII, Assassination of Julius Caesar, Crassus, Pompey, Brutus, Cato the Younger, Theatre of Pompey, Cicero, First Triumvirate, Comitium
Cleopatra VII Philopator (in Greek, Κλεοπάτρα Φιλοπάτωρ; (January 69 BC – August 12, 30 BC) was the last effective pharaoh of Egypt's Ptolemaic dynasty. She originally shared power with her father Ptolemy XII Auletes and later with her brothers Ptolemy XIII and Ptolemy XIV, whom she also married, but eventually gained sole rule. As pharaoh, she consummated a liaison with Gaius Julius Caesar that solidified her grip on the throne. She later elevated her son with Caesar, Caesarion, to co-ruler in name.
After Caesar's assassination in 44 BC, she aligned with Mark Antony in opposition to Caesar's legal heir Gaius Julius Caesar Octavian (later known as Augustus). With Antony she bore the twins Cleopatra Selene II and Alexander Helios, and another son, Ptolemy Philadelphus. Her successive unions with her brothers produced no children. After losing the Battle of Actium to Octavian's forces, Antony committed suicide. Cleopatra soon followed suit, according to tradition killing herself by means of an asp bite on August 12, 30 BC.[1] She was briefly outlived by Caesarion, who was declared pharaoh, but he was soon killed on Octavian's orders. Egypt became the Roman province of Aegyptus.
Though Cleopatra bore the ancient Egyptian title of pharaoh, the Ptolemaic dynasty was Hellenistic, having been founded 300 years before by Ptolemy I Soter, a Macedonian Greek general of Alexander the Great.[2][3][4][5] As such Cleopatra's language was the Greek spoken by the Hellenic aristocracy, though she was reputed to be the first ruler of the dynasty to learn Egyptian. She also adopted common Egyptian beliefs and deities. Her patron goddess was Isis, and thus during her reign it was believed that she was the re-incarnation and embodiment of the goddess of wisdom. Her death marks the end of the Ptolemaic Kingdom and Hellenistic period and the beginning of the Roman era in the eastern Mediterranean.
To this day Cleopatra remains a popular figure in Western culture. Her legacy survives in numerous works of art and the many dramatizations of her story in literature and other media, including William Shakespeare's tragedy Antony and Cleopatra, Jules Massenet's opera Cléopâtre and the 1963 film Cleopatra. In most depictions, Cleopatra is put forward as a great beauty and her successive conquests of the world's most powerful men are taken to be proof of her aesthetic and sexual appeal. In his Pensées, philosopher Blaise Pascal contends that Cleopatra's classically beautiful profile changed world history: "Cleopatra's nose, had it been shorter, the whole face of the world would have been changed."[6]
Contents[hide]
1 Accession to the throne
2 Relation with Julius Caesar
2.1 Assassination of Pompey
2.2 Caesar and Caesarion
2.3 Cleopatra in the Roman Civil War
3 Cleopatra and Mark Antony
3.1 Death
4 Character and cultural depictions
5 Ancestry
6 References
7 Footnotes
8 Further reading
9 External links
9.1 General
9.2 Paintings
//
[edit] Accession to the throne
Statue of Cleopatra as Egyptian Goddess; Basalt, second half of the first century BC. Hermitage, Saint Petersburg
The identity of Cleopatra's mother is unknown, but she is generally believed to be Cleopatra V Tryphaena of Egypt, the sister or cousin and wife of Ptolemy XII, or possibly another Ptolemaic family member who was the daughter of Ptolemy X and Cleopatra Berenice III Philopator if Cleopatra V was not the daughter of Ptolemy X and Berenice III.[7] Cleopatra's father Auletes was a direct descendant of Alexander the Great's general, Ptolemy I Soter, son of Arsinoe and Lacus, both of Macedon.
Centralization of power and corruption led to uprisings in and the losses of Cyprus and Cyrenaica, making Ptolemy's reign one of the most calamitous of the dynasty. When Ptolemy went to Rome with Cleopatra, Cleopatra VI Tryphaena seized the crown but died shortly afterwards in suspicious circumstances. It is believed, though not proven by historical sources, that Berenice IV poisoned her so she could assume sole rulership. Regardless of the cause, she did until Ptolemy Auletes returned in 55 BC, with Roman support, capturing Alexandria aided by Roman general Aulus Gabinius. Berenice was imprisoned and executed shortly afterwards, her head allegedly being sent to the royal court on the decree of her father, the king. Cleopatra was now, at age 14, put as joint regent and deputy of her father, although her power was likely to have been severely limited.
Ptolemy XII died in March 51 BC, thus by his will making the 18-year-old Cleopatra and her brother, the 12-year-old Ptolemy XIII joint monarchs. The first three years of their reign were difficult, due to economic difficulties, famine, deficient floods of the Nile, and political conflicts. Although Cleopatra was married to her young brother, she quickly made it clear that she had no intention of sharing power with him.
In August 51 BC, relations between Cleopatra and Ptolemy completely broke down. Cleopatra dropped Ptolemy's name from official documents and her face appeared alone on coins, which went against Ptolemaic tradition of female rulers being subordinate to male co-rulers. In 50 BC Cleopatra came into a serious conflict with the Gabiniani, powerful Roman troops of Aulus Gabinius who had left them in Egypt to protect Ptolemy XII after his restoration to the throne in 55 BC. This conflict was one of the main causes for Cleopatra's soon following loss of power.
The sole reign of Cleopatra was finally ended by a cabal of courtiers, led by the eunuch Pothinus, removing Cleopatra from power and making Ptolemy sole ruler in circa 48 BC (or possibly earlier, as a decree exists from 51 BC with Ptolemy's name alone). She tried to raise a rebellion around Pelusium, but she was soon forced to flee with her only remaining sister, Arsinoë.[8]
[edit] Relation with Julius Caesar
[edit] Assassination of Pompey
While Cleopatra was in exile, Pompey became embroiled in the Roman civil war. In the autumn of 48 BC, Pompey fled from the forces of Caesar to Alexandria, seeking sanctuary. Ptolemy, only fifteen years old at that time, had set up a throne for himself on the harbour, from where he watched as on September 28, 48 BC, Pompey was murdered by one of his former officers, now in Ptolemaic service. He was beheaded in front of his wife and children, who were on the ship from which he had just disembarked. Ptolemy is thought to have ordered the death to ingratiate himself with Caesar, thus becoming an ally of Rome, to which Egypt was in debt at the time, though this act proved a miscalculation on Ptolemy's part. When Caesar arrived in Egypt two days later, Ptolemy presented him with Pompey's severed head; Caesar was enraged. Although he was Caesar's political enemy, Pompey was a Consul of Rome and the widower of Caesar's only legitimate daughter, Julia (who died in childbirth with their son). Caesar seized the Egyptian capital and imposed himself as arbiter between the rival claims of Ptolemy and Cleopatra.
[edit] Caesar and Caesarion
Eager to take advantage of Julius Caesar's anger with Ptolemy, Queen Cleopatra returned to the palace rolled into a Persian carpet and had it presented to Caesar by her servants: when it was unrolled, Cleopatra tumbled out.[9] It is believed that Caesar was charmed by the gesture, and she became his mistress. Nine months after their first meeting, Cleopatra gave birth to their baby, in 47 BC. It was at this point that Caesar abandoned his plans to annex Egypt, instead backing Cleopatra's claim to the throne. After a war lasting six months between the party of Ptolemy XIII and the Roman army of Caesar, Ptolemy XIII was drowned in the Nile and Caesar restored Cleopatra to her throne, with another younger brother Ptolemy XIV as new co-ruler.[10]
Cleopatra VII and her son Caesarion at the Temple of Dendera
Despite a more than thirty-year age difference, Cleopatra and Caesar became lovers during his stay in Egypt between 48 BC and 47 BC. They met when they were 21 (Cleopatra) and 52 (Caesar). On 23 June 47 BC Cleopatra gave birth to a child, Ptolemy Caesar, nicknamed Caesarion which means "little Caesar". Cleopatra claimed Caesar was the father and wished him to name the boy his heir, but Caesar refused, choosing his grandnephew Octavian instead. Caesarion was the intended inheritor of Egypt and Rome, uniting the East and the West. During this relationship, it is also rumored that Cleopatra introduced Caesar to her astronomer Sosigenes of Alexandria, who first proposed the idea of leap day and leap years
Cleopatra, Ptolemy XIV and Caesarion visited Rome in summer 46 BC. The Egyptian Queen resided in one of Caesar's country houses.[11] The relationship between Cleopatra and Caesar was obvious for the Roman people and it was a scandal, because the Roman dictator was already married to Calpurnia Pisonis. But Caesar even erected a golden statue of Cleopatra represented as Isis in the temple of Venus Genetrix (the mythical ancestress of Caesar's family), which was situated at the Forum Julium.[12] The Roman orator Cicero said in his preserved letters that he hated the foreign Queen.[13] Cleopatra and her entourage were in Rome when Caesar was assassinated on 15 March, 44 BC.[14] She returned with her relatives to Egypt. When Ptolemy XIV died - allegedly poisoned by his older sister -,[15] Cleopatra made Caesarion her co-regent and successor.
[edit] Cleopatra in the Roman Civil War
In the following Roman civil war between the Caesarian party – led by Mark Antony and Octavian – and the party of the assassins of Caesar – led by Marcus Junius Brutus and Gaius Cassius Longinus – Cleopatra sided with the Caesarian party because of her past. Brutus and Cassius left Italy and sailed to the East of the Roman Empire, where they conquered large areas and established their military basis. At the beginning of 43 BC Cleopatra formed an alliance with the leader of the Caesarian party in the East, Publius Cornelius Dolabella, who recognized Caesarion as her co-ruler.[16] But soon Dolabella was encircled in Laodicea and committed suicide (July 43 BC).
Now Cassius wanted to invade Egypt to seize the treasures of that country and to punish the Queen for her refusal of Cassius’ request to send him supplies and her support for Dolabella. Egypt seemed an easy booty because the land did not have strong land forces and there were a famine and an epidemic. Cassius finally wanted to prevent that Cleopatra would bring a strong fleet as reinforcement for Antony and Octavian. But he could not execute the invasion of Egypt because at the end of 43 BC Brutus summoned him back to Smyrna. Cassius tried to blockade Cleopatra’s way to the Caesarians. For this purpose Lucius Statius Murcus moved with 60 ships and a legion of elite troops into position at Cape Matapan in the south of the Peloponnese. Nevertheless Cleopatra sailed with her fleet from Alexandria to the west along the Libyan coast to join the Caesarian leaders but her ships were damaged by a violent storm and she became ill, forcing her to return to Egypt. Murcus learned of the misfortune of the Queen and saw parts of her wrecked ships at the coast of Greece. He then sailed with his ships into the Adriatic Sea.[17]
[edit] Cleopatra and Mark Antony
Antony and Cleopatra, by Lawrence Alma-Tadema
In 41 BC, Mark Antony, one of the triumvirs who ruled Rome in the power vacuum following Caesar's death, summoned Cleopatra to meet him in Tarsus to answer questions about her loyalty. Cleopatra arrived in great state, and so charmed Antony that he chose to spend the winter of 41 BC–40 BC with her in Alexandria.
To safeguard herself and Caesarion, she had Antony order the death of her sister Arsinoe, who was living at the temple of Artemis in Ephesus, which was under Roman control. The execution was carried out in 41 BC on the steps of the temple, and this violation of temple sanctuary scandalised Rome.[18]
On 25 December 40 BC, Cleopatra gave birth to twins fathered by Antony, Alexander Helios and Cleopatra Selene II. Four years later, Antony visited Alexandria again en route to make war with the Parthians. He renewed his relationship with Cleopatra, and from this point on Alexandria would be his home. He married Cleopatra according to the Egyptian rite (a letter quoted in Suetonius suggests this), although he was at the time married to Octavia Minor, sister of his fellow triumvir Octavian. He and Cleopatra had another child, Ptolemy Philadelphus.
Coin of Antony and Cleopatra
A tetradrachm of Cleopatra VII, Ascalon mint
At the Donations of Alexandria in late 34 BC, following Antony's conquest of Armenia, Cleopatra and Caesarion were crowned co-rulers of Egypt and Cyprus; Alexander Helios was crowned ruler of Armenia, Media, and Parthia; Cleopatra Selene II was crowned ruler of Cyrenaica and Libya; and Ptolemy Philadelphus was crowned ruler of Phoenicia, Syria, and Cilicia. Cleopatra also took the title of Queen of Kings.[19] Cleopatra "was planning a war of revenge that was to array all the East against Rome, establish herself as empress of the world at Rome and inaugurate a new universal kingdom."[20]
Relations between Antony and Octavian, disintegrating for several years, finally broke down in 33 BC, and Octavian convinced the Senate to levy war against Egypt. In 31 BC Antony's forces faced the Romans in a naval action off the coast of Actium. Cleopatra was present with a fleet of her own. Popular legend states that when she saw that Antony's poorly equipped and manned ships were losing to the Romans' superior vessels, she took flight and that Antony abandoned the battle to follow her, but no contemporary evidence states this was the case.
Following the Battle of Actium, Octavian invaded Egypt. As he approached Alexandria, Antony's armies deserted to Octavian on August 1, 30 BC.
There are a number of unverifiable stories about Cleopatra, of which one of the best known is that, at one of the lavish dinners she shared with Antony, she playfully bet him that she could spend ten million sesterces on a dinner. He accepted the bet. The next night, she had a conventional, unspectacular meal served; he was ridiculing this, when she ordered the second course — only a cup of strong vinegar. She then removed one of her priceless pearl earrings, dropped it into the vinegar, allowed it to dissolve, and drank the mixture. The earliest report of this story comes from Pliny the Elder and dates to about 100 years after the banquet described would have happened. The calcium carbonate in pearls does dissolve in vinegar, but slowly unless the pearl is first crushed.[21]
[edit] Death
The ancient sources, particularly the Roman ones, are in general agreement that Cleopatra killed herself by inducing an Egyptian cobra to bite her. The oldest source is Strabo, who was alive at the time of the event, and might even have been in Alexandria. He says that there are two stories: that she applied a toxic ointment, or that she was bitten by an asp.[22] Several Roman poets, writing within ten years of the event, all mention bites by two asps,[23][24][25] as does Florus, a historian, some 150 years later.[26] Velleius, sixty years after the event, also refers to an asp.[27] Other authors have questioned these historical accounts, stating that it is possible that Augustus had her killed.[28]
A tetradrachm of Cleopatra VII, Syria mint
Plutarch, writing about 130 years after the event, reports that Octavian succeeded in capturing Cleopatra in her Mausoleum after the death of Antony. He ordered his freedman Epaphroditus to guard her to prevent her from commiting suicide because he allegedly wanted to present her in his triumph. But Cleopatra was able to deceive Epaphroditus and kill herself nevertheless.[29] Plutarch states that she was found dead, her handmaiden, Iras dying at her feet, and another handmaiden, Charmion, adjusting her crown before she herself falls.[30] He then goes on to state that an asp was concealed in a basket of figs that was brought to her by a rustic, and, finding it after eating a few figs, she held out her arm for it to bite. Other stories state that it was hidden in a vase, and that she poked it with a spindle until it got angry enough to bite her on the arm. Finally, he eventually writes, in Octavian's triumphal march back in Rome, an effigy of Cleopatra that has an asp clinging to it is part of the parade.[31]
Suetonius, writing about the same time as Plutarch, also says Cleopatra died from an asp bite.[32]
Shakespeare gave us the final part of the image that has come down to us, Cleopatra clutching the snake to her breast.[33] Before him, it was generally agreed that she was bitten on the arm.[34][35][36]
Plutarch tells us of the death of Antony. When his armies desert him and join with Octavian, he cries out that Cleopatra has betrayed him. She, fearing his wrath, locks herself in her monument with only her two handmaidens and sends messengers to Antony that she is dead. Believing them, Antony stabs himself in the stomach with his sword, and lies on his couch to die. Instead, the blood flow stops, and he begs any and all to finish him off.
The Death of Cleopatra by Guido Cagnacci, 1658
Another messenger comes from Cleopatra with instructions to bear him to her, and he, rejoicing that Cleopatra is still alive, consents. She won't open the door, but tosses ropes out of a window. After Antony is securely trussed up, she and her handmaidens haul him up into the monument. This nearly finishes him off. After dragging him in through the window, they lay him on a couch. Cleopatra tears off her clothes and covers him with them. She raves and cries, beats her breasts and engages in self-mutilation. Antony tells her to calm down, asks for a glass of wine, and dies upon finishing it.[37]
The site of their Mausoleum is uncertain, though it is thought by the Egyptian Antiquities Service, to be in or near the temple of Taposiris Magna south west of Alexandria.[38]
Cleopatra's son by Caesar, Caesarion, was proclaimed pharaoh by the Egyptians, after Alexandria fell to Octavian. Caesarion was captured and killed, his fate reportedly sealed when one of Octavian's advisers paraphrased Homer: "It is bad to have too many Caesars."[39] This ended not just the Hellenistic line of Egyptian pharaohs, but the line of all Egyptian pharaohs. The three children of Cleopatra and Antony were spared and taken back to Rome where they were taken care of by Antony's wife, Octavia Minor. The daughter, Cleopatra Selene, was married by arrangements by Octavian to Juba II of Mauretania.[40]
[edit] Character and cultural depictions
Main article: Cultural depictions of Cleopatra VII
Cleopatra was regarded as a great beauty, even in the ancient world. In his Life of Antony, Plutarch remarks that "judging by the proofs which she had had before this of the effect of her beauty upon Caius Caesar and Gnaeus the son of Pompey, she had hopes that she would more easily bring Antony to her feet. For Caesar and Pompey had known her when she was still a girl and inexperienced in affairs, but she was going to visit Antony at the very time when women have the most brilliant beauty".[6] Later in the work, however, Plutarch indicates that "her beauty, as we are told, was in itself not altogether incomparable, nor such as to strike those who saw her."[6] Rather, what ultimately made Cleopatra attractive were her wit, charm and "sweetness in the tones of her voice."[6]
Cassius Dio also spoke of Cleopatra's allure: "For she was a woman of surpassing beauty, and at that time, when she was in the prime of her youth, she was most striking; she also possessed a most charming voice and knowledge of how to make herself agreeable to every one. Being brilliant to look upon and to listen to, with the power to subjugate every one, even a love-sated man already past his prime, she thought that it would be in keeping with her role to meet Caesar, and she reposed in her beauty all her claims to the throne."[6]
These accounts influenced later cultural depictions of Cleopatra, which typically present her using her charms to influence the most powerful men in the Western world.
[edit] Ancestry
The high degree of inbreeding amongst the Ptolemies can be seen from the ancestry of Cleopatra VII. As the stemma below shows, she only had four great-grandparents and six (out of a possible 16) great-great-grandparents (furthermore, four of those six were descended from the other two).
Ancestors of Cleopatra VII of Egypt[show]
16. Ptolemy V Epiphanes
8. Ptolemy VIII Physcon
17. Cleopatra I of Egypt
4. Ptolemy IX Lathyros
18. Ptolemy VI Philometor (brother of 8)
9. Cleopatra III of Egypt
19. Cleopatra II of Egypt (sister of 8)
2. Ptolemy XII Auletes
20. =16. Ptolemy V Epiphanes
10. =8. Ptolemy VIII Physcon
21. =17. Cleopatra I of Egypt
5. Cleopatra IV of Egypt
22. =18. Ptolemy VI Philometor
11. =9. Cleopatra III of Egypt
23. =19. Cleopatra II of Egypt
1. Cleopatra VII
24. =16. Ptolemy V Epiphanes
12. =8. Ptolemy VIII Physcon
25. =17. Cleopatra I of Egypt
6. Ptolemy X Alexander I
26. =18. Ptolemy VI Philometor
13. =9. Cleopatra III of Egypt
27. =19. Cleopatra II of Egypt
3. Cleopatra V of Egypt
28. =8. Ptolemy VIII Physcon
14. =4. Ptolemy IX Lathyros
29. =9. Cleopatra III of Egypt
7. Berenice III of Egypt
30. =8. Ptolemy VIII Physcon
15. Cleopatra Selene I
31. =9. Cleopatra III of Egypt
[edit] References
Wikinews has related news: Egyptian archaeologist finds artifacts which may lead to Cleopatra's tomb
Hegesippus, Historiae i.29-32
Macrobius, Saturnalia iii.17.14-18
Lucan, Bellum civile ix.909-911, x
Suetonius, De vita Caesarum Iul i.35.52, ii.17
Pliny, Naturalis historia vii.2.14, ix.58.119-121, xxi.9.12
Orosius, Historiae adversus paganos vi.16.1-2, 19.4-18
[edit] Footnotes
^ "Who Was Cleopatra? (page 2)". Smithsonian Magazine. http://www.smithsonianmag.com/history-archaeology/biography/cleopatra.html. Retrieved 2008-01-22.
^ The Oxford Encyclopedia of Ancient Egypt. “,Cleopatra VII was born to Ptolemy XII Auletes (80–57 BCE, ruled 55–51 BCE) and Cleopatra, both parents being Macedonian Greeks."
^ Encyclopedia of the Archaeology of Ancient Egypt by Kathryn Bard, page 488 “ Ptolemaic kings were still crowned at Memphis and the city was popularly regarded as the Egyptian rival to Alexandria, founded by the Macedonian Greeks”; Page 687: "During the Ptolemaic period, when Egypt was governed by rulers of Greek descent…”
^ Cleopatra: A Sourcebook (Oklahoma Series in Classical Culture) by Prudence J. Jones (Author) page14“They were members of the Ptolemaic dynasty of Macedonian Greeks, who ruled Egypt after the death of its conqueror, Alexander the Great.”
^ Women in Hellenistic Egypt by Sarah B. Pomeroy, page 16 “while Ptolemaic Egypt was a monarchy with a Greek ruling class."
^ a b c d e "The Beauty of Cleopatra". University of Chicago. http://penelope.uchicago.edu/~grout/encyclopaedia_romana/miscellanea/cleopatra/bust.html. Retrieved 2008-05-28.
^ The German historian Werner Huß (Die Herkunft der Kleopatra Philopator (The descent of Cleopatra Philopator), Aegyptus 70, 1990, pp. 191-203) assumes instead that Cleopatra's mother was a high born Egyptian woman, who possibly had become the second wife of Ptolemy XII after he had repudiated Cleopatra V.
^ Peter Green (1990). Alexander to Actium: The Historical Evolution of the Hellenistic Age. Berkeley: University of California Press. pp. 661–664. ISBN 0-520-05611-6.
^ So the dramatic report of Plutarch (Caesar 49.1-3), that is doubted by some scholars. Cleopatra had to be smuggled secretly into the palace, where Caesar was residing, because Ptolemy XIII blocked all ways to Alexandria to make it impossible for his half-sister to come in the city.
^ Death of Ptolemy XIII: De Bello Alexandrino28-32; Cassius Dio, Roman History 42.43; new enthronement of Cleopatra: De Bello Alexandrino 33; Cassius Dio, Roman History 42.44; Suetonius, Caesar 35.1
^ Cassius Dio, Roman History 43.27.3; Cicero, Letters to Atticus 15.15.2
^ Appian, Civil Wars 2.102.424; Cassius Dio, Roman History 51.22.3
^ Cicero, Letters to Atticus 15.15.2
^ Cicero, Letters to Atticus 14.8.1 (written on 16 April 44 BC) says that he was very glad that the Queen had fled.
^ Josephus, Antiquities of the Jews 15.89
^ Appian, Civil Wars 4.61.262-263; Cassius Dio, Roman History 47.30.4 and 47.31.5
^ Appian, Civil Wars 4.63; 4.74; 4.82; 5.8
^ BBC documentary, Cleopatra portrait of a killer
^ Ronald Syme, The Roman Revolution (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1962), 270.
^ Ronald Syme, The Roman Revolution (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1962), 274.
^ Ullman, Berthold L. (1957). "Cleopatra's Pearls". The Classical Journal 52 (5): 193–201.
^ but he said in his writings that he wasn't sure if Cleopatra poisoned herself or was murdered. Strabo, Geography, XVII 10
^ Vergil, Aeneid, VIII 696-697
^ Horace, Odes, I 37
^ Sextus Propertius, Elegies, III 11
^ Florus, Epitome of Roman History, II 21
^ Velleius Paterculus, Compendium of Roman History, II 87
^ Everitt, Anthony (2007). Augustus: The Life of Rome's First Emperor. New York: Random House Trade Paperbacks. pp. 194–195. ISBN 0-8129-7058-6.
^ Plutarch, Life of Antony 79.6 and 85.4-6; Cassius Dio, Roman History 51.11.4-5 and 51.13.3-5
^ Plutarch, Parallel Lives, LXXXV 2-3 (Life of Antony)
^ Plutarch, ibid., LXXXVI 3. See also Cassius Dio, Roman History, LI 21
^ Suetonius, On the Life of the Caesars, Augustus, XVII 4
^ Shakespeare, Antony and Cleopatra, V ii
^ Plutarch, loc. cit.
^ Cassius Dio, op. cit., LI 14
^ Galen, De Theriaca ad Pisonem, CCXXXVII, who says she bit herself, rather than an asp biting her.
^ Plutarch, ibid.
^ "Dig 'may reveal' Cleopatra's tomb". BBC News. 2009-04-15. http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/middle_east/8000978.stm. Retrieved 2009-04-24.
^ Plutarch, Life of Antony 81.4 - 82.1; Cassius Dio, Roman History 51.15.5; Suetonius, Augustus 17.5
^ Plutarch, Life of Antony 87.1-2; Cassius Dio, Roman History 51.15.6; Suetonius, Augustus 17.5 and Caligula 26.1
[edit] Further reading
Bradford, Ernle Dusgate Selby (2000), Cleopatra, Penguin Group, ISBN 9780141390147
Burstein, Stanley M., The Reign of Cleopatra, University of Oklahoma Press
Flamarion, Edith; Bonfante-Warren, Alexandra (1997), Cleopatra: The Life and Death of a Pharoah, Harry Abrams, ISBN 9780810928053
Foss, Michael (1999), The Search for Cleopatra, Arcade Publishing, ISBN 9781559705035
Nardo, Don (1994), Cleopatra, Lucent Books, ISBN 9781560060239
Southern, Pat (2000), Cleopatra, Tempus, ISBN 9780752414942
Walker, Susan; Higgs, Peter (2001), Cleopatra of Egypt, From History to Myth, Princeton University Press, ISBN 9780691088358
[edit] External links
Find more about Cleopatra VII on Wikipedia's sister projects: Definitions from Wiktionary Textbooks from Wikibooks Quotations from Wikiquote Source texts from Wikisource Images and media from Commons News stories from Wikinews Learning resources from Wikiversity
[edit] General
The Queen Cleopatra at the Encyclopedia channel biographical films about historical figures
Cleopatra on the Web 580 resources, including ancient and modern pictures
Cleopatra VII Philopator ancient sources
Cleopatra VII (VI) at LacusCurtius - Chapter XIII of E. R. Bevan's House of Ptolemy, 1923
Cleopatra, a Victorian children's book by Jacob Abbott, 1852, Project Gutenberg edition.
Genealogy of Cleopatra VII
James Grout: Cleopatra part of the Encyclopædia Romana
"Mysterious Death of Cleopatra" at the Discovery Channel
Cleopatra VII at BBC History
"The 'New Cleopatra' and the Jewish Tax" Biblical Archaeology Society
[edit] Paintings
Sir Thomas Browne: Of the Picture describing the death of Cleopatra (1672)
John Sartain: On the Antique Portrait of Cleopatra (1818)
Cleopatra VII
Ptolemaic dynastyBorn: 69 BC Died: 30 BC
Preceded byPtolemy XII
Queen of Egypt51–30 BCwith Ptolemy XII,Ptolemy XIII,Ptolemy XIV andPtolemy XV Caesarion
Succeeded byEgypt annexed by Rome
Cleopatra VII
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Cleopatra VII
Queen of Egypt
Reign
51 BC–12 August 30 BCPtolemy XIII (51 BC–47 BC)Ptolemy XIV (47 BC–44 BC)Caesarion (44 BC–30 BC)
Full name
Cleopatra VII Thea Philopator
Born
January 69 BC
Died
August 12, 30 BC (aged 39)
Place of death
Alexandria
Predecessor
Ptolemy XII Auletes
Successor
Office abolished (Roman province)
Consort
Ptolemy XIII Theos PhilopatorPtolemy XIVJulius Caesar (de facto)Mark Antony (de facto)
Offspring
Ptolemy Caesar (Caesarion)Cleopatra Selene IIAlexander HeliosPtolemy Philadelphus
Dynasty
Ptolemaic
Father
Ptolemy XII Auletes
Mother
Cleopatra V of Egypt
These articles cover Ancient Rome and the fall of the Republic
Roman Republic, Mark Antony, Cleopatra VII, Assassination of Julius Caesar, Crassus, Pompey, Brutus, Cato the Younger, Theatre of Pompey, Cicero, First Triumvirate, Comitium
Cleopatra VII Philopator (in Greek, Κλεοπάτρα Φιλοπάτωρ; (January 69 BC – August 12, 30 BC) was the last effective pharaoh of Egypt's Ptolemaic dynasty. She originally shared power with her father Ptolemy XII Auletes and later with her brothers Ptolemy XIII and Ptolemy XIV, whom she also married, but eventually gained sole rule. As pharaoh, she consummated a liaison with Gaius Julius Caesar that solidified her grip on the throne. She later elevated her son with Caesar, Caesarion, to co-ruler in name.
After Caesar's assassination in 44 BC, she aligned with Mark Antony in opposition to Caesar's legal heir Gaius Julius Caesar Octavian (later known as Augustus). With Antony she bore the twins Cleopatra Selene II and Alexander Helios, and another son, Ptolemy Philadelphus. Her successive unions with her brothers produced no children. After losing the Battle of Actium to Octavian's forces, Antony committed suicide. Cleopatra soon followed suit, according to tradition killing herself by means of an asp bite on August 12, 30 BC.[1] She was briefly outlived by Caesarion, who was declared pharaoh, but he was soon killed on Octavian's orders. Egypt became the Roman province of Aegyptus.
Though Cleopatra bore the ancient Egyptian title of pharaoh, the Ptolemaic dynasty was Hellenistic, having been founded 300 years before by Ptolemy I Soter, a Macedonian Greek general of Alexander the Great.[2][3][4][5] As such Cleopatra's language was the Greek spoken by the Hellenic aristocracy, though she was reputed to be the first ruler of the dynasty to learn Egyptian. She also adopted common Egyptian beliefs and deities. Her patron goddess was Isis, and thus during her reign it was believed that she was the re-incarnation and embodiment of the goddess of wisdom. Her death marks the end of the Ptolemaic Kingdom and Hellenistic period and the beginning of the Roman era in the eastern Mediterranean.
To this day Cleopatra remains a popular figure in Western culture. Her legacy survives in numerous works of art and the many dramatizations of her story in literature and other media, including William Shakespeare's tragedy Antony and Cleopatra, Jules Massenet's opera Cléopâtre and the 1963 film Cleopatra. In most depictions, Cleopatra is put forward as a great beauty and her successive conquests of the world's most powerful men are taken to be proof of her aesthetic and sexual appeal. In his Pensées, philosopher Blaise Pascal contends that Cleopatra's classically beautiful profile changed world history: "Cleopatra's nose, had it been shorter, the whole face of the world would have been changed."[6]
Contents[hide]
1 Accession to the throne
2 Relation with Julius Caesar
2.1 Assassination of Pompey
2.2 Caesar and Caesarion
2.3 Cleopatra in the Roman Civil War
3 Cleopatra and Mark Antony
3.1 Death
4 Character and cultural depictions
5 Ancestry
6 References
7 Footnotes
8 Further reading
9 External links
9.1 General
9.2 Paintings
//
[edit] Accession to the throne
Statue of Cleopatra as Egyptian Goddess; Basalt, second half of the first century BC. Hermitage, Saint Petersburg
The identity of Cleopatra's mother is unknown, but she is generally believed to be Cleopatra V Tryphaena of Egypt, the sister or cousin and wife of Ptolemy XII, or possibly another Ptolemaic family member who was the daughter of Ptolemy X and Cleopatra Berenice III Philopator if Cleopatra V was not the daughter of Ptolemy X and Berenice III.[7] Cleopatra's father Auletes was a direct descendant of Alexander the Great's general, Ptolemy I Soter, son of Arsinoe and Lacus, both of Macedon.
Centralization of power and corruption led to uprisings in and the losses of Cyprus and Cyrenaica, making Ptolemy's reign one of the most calamitous of the dynasty. When Ptolemy went to Rome with Cleopatra, Cleopatra VI Tryphaena seized the crown but died shortly afterwards in suspicious circumstances. It is believed, though not proven by historical sources, that Berenice IV poisoned her so she could assume sole rulership. Regardless of the cause, she did until Ptolemy Auletes returned in 55 BC, with Roman support, capturing Alexandria aided by Roman general Aulus Gabinius. Berenice was imprisoned and executed shortly afterwards, her head allegedly being sent to the royal court on the decree of her father, the king. Cleopatra was now, at age 14, put as joint regent and deputy of her father, although her power was likely to have been severely limited.
Ptolemy XII died in March 51 BC, thus by his will making the 18-year-old Cleopatra and her brother, the 12-year-old Ptolemy XIII joint monarchs. The first three years of their reign were difficult, due to economic difficulties, famine, deficient floods of the Nile, and political conflicts. Although Cleopatra was married to her young brother, she quickly made it clear that she had no intention of sharing power with him.
In August 51 BC, relations between Cleopatra and Ptolemy completely broke down. Cleopatra dropped Ptolemy's name from official documents and her face appeared alone on coins, which went against Ptolemaic tradition of female rulers being subordinate to male co-rulers. In 50 BC Cleopatra came into a serious conflict with the Gabiniani, powerful Roman troops of Aulus Gabinius who had left them in Egypt to protect Ptolemy XII after his restoration to the throne in 55 BC. This conflict was one of the main causes for Cleopatra's soon following loss of power.
The sole reign of Cleopatra was finally ended by a cabal of courtiers, led by the eunuch Pothinus, removing Cleopatra from power and making Ptolemy sole ruler in circa 48 BC (or possibly earlier, as a decree exists from 51 BC with Ptolemy's name alone). She tried to raise a rebellion around Pelusium, but she was soon forced to flee with her only remaining sister, Arsinoë.[8]
[edit] Relation with Julius Caesar
[edit] Assassination of Pompey
While Cleopatra was in exile, Pompey became embroiled in the Roman civil war. In the autumn of 48 BC, Pompey fled from the forces of Caesar to Alexandria, seeking sanctuary. Ptolemy, only fifteen years old at that time, had set up a throne for himself on the harbour, from where he watched as on September 28, 48 BC, Pompey was murdered by one of his former officers, now in Ptolemaic service. He was beheaded in front of his wife and children, who were on the ship from which he had just disembarked. Ptolemy is thought to have ordered the death to ingratiate himself with Caesar, thus becoming an ally of Rome, to which Egypt was in debt at the time, though this act proved a miscalculation on Ptolemy's part. When Caesar arrived in Egypt two days later, Ptolemy presented him with Pompey's severed head; Caesar was enraged. Although he was Caesar's political enemy, Pompey was a Consul of Rome and the widower of Caesar's only legitimate daughter, Julia (who died in childbirth with their son). Caesar seized the Egyptian capital and imposed himself as arbiter between the rival claims of Ptolemy and Cleopatra.
[edit] Caesar and Caesarion
Eager to take advantage of Julius Caesar's anger with Ptolemy, Queen Cleopatra returned to the palace rolled into a Persian carpet and had it presented to Caesar by her servants: when it was unrolled, Cleopatra tumbled out.[9] It is believed that Caesar was charmed by the gesture, and she became his mistress. Nine months after their first meeting, Cleopatra gave birth to their baby, in 47 BC. It was at this point that Caesar abandoned his plans to annex Egypt, instead backing Cleopatra's claim to the throne. After a war lasting six months between the party of Ptolemy XIII and the Roman army of Caesar, Ptolemy XIII was drowned in the Nile and Caesar restored Cleopatra to her throne, with another younger brother Ptolemy XIV as new co-ruler.[10]
Cleopatra VII and her son Caesarion at the Temple of Dendera
Despite a more than thirty-year age difference, Cleopatra and Caesar became lovers during his stay in Egypt between 48 BC and 47 BC. They met when they were 21 (Cleopatra) and 52 (Caesar). On 23 June 47 BC Cleopatra gave birth to a child, Ptolemy Caesar, nicknamed Caesarion which means "little Caesar". Cleopatra claimed Caesar was the father and wished him to name the boy his heir, but Caesar refused, choosing his grandnephew Octavian instead. Caesarion was the intended inheritor of Egypt and Rome, uniting the East and the West. During this relationship, it is also rumored that Cleopatra introduced Caesar to her astronomer Sosigenes of Alexandria, who first proposed the idea of leap day and leap years
Cleopatra, Ptolemy XIV and Caesarion visited Rome in summer 46 BC. The Egyptian Queen resided in one of Caesar's country houses.[11] The relationship between Cleopatra and Caesar was obvious for the Roman people and it was a scandal, because the Roman dictator was already married to Calpurnia Pisonis. But Caesar even erected a golden statue of Cleopatra represented as Isis in the temple of Venus Genetrix (the mythical ancestress of Caesar's family), which was situated at the Forum Julium.[12] The Roman orator Cicero said in his preserved letters that he hated the foreign Queen.[13] Cleopatra and her entourage were in Rome when Caesar was assassinated on 15 March, 44 BC.[14] She returned with her relatives to Egypt. When Ptolemy XIV died - allegedly poisoned by his older sister -,[15] Cleopatra made Caesarion her co-regent and successor.
[edit] Cleopatra in the Roman Civil War
In the following Roman civil war between the Caesarian party – led by Mark Antony and Octavian – and the party of the assassins of Caesar – led by Marcus Junius Brutus and Gaius Cassius Longinus – Cleopatra sided with the Caesarian party because of her past. Brutus and Cassius left Italy and sailed to the East of the Roman Empire, where they conquered large areas and established their military basis. At the beginning of 43 BC Cleopatra formed an alliance with the leader of the Caesarian party in the East, Publius Cornelius Dolabella, who recognized Caesarion as her co-ruler.[16] But soon Dolabella was encircled in Laodicea and committed suicide (July 43 BC).
Now Cassius wanted to invade Egypt to seize the treasures of that country and to punish the Queen for her refusal of Cassius’ request to send him supplies and her support for Dolabella. Egypt seemed an easy booty because the land did not have strong land forces and there were a famine and an epidemic. Cassius finally wanted to prevent that Cleopatra would bring a strong fleet as reinforcement for Antony and Octavian. But he could not execute the invasion of Egypt because at the end of 43 BC Brutus summoned him back to Smyrna. Cassius tried to blockade Cleopatra’s way to the Caesarians. For this purpose Lucius Statius Murcus moved with 60 ships and a legion of elite troops into position at Cape Matapan in the south of the Peloponnese. Nevertheless Cleopatra sailed with her fleet from Alexandria to the west along the Libyan coast to join the Caesarian leaders but her ships were damaged by a violent storm and she became ill, forcing her to return to Egypt. Murcus learned of the misfortune of the Queen and saw parts of her wrecked ships at the coast of Greece. He then sailed with his ships into the Adriatic Sea.[17]
[edit] Cleopatra and Mark Antony
Antony and Cleopatra, by Lawrence Alma-Tadema
In 41 BC, Mark Antony, one of the triumvirs who ruled Rome in the power vacuum following Caesar's death, summoned Cleopatra to meet him in Tarsus to answer questions about her loyalty. Cleopatra arrived in great state, and so charmed Antony that he chose to spend the winter of 41 BC–40 BC with her in Alexandria.
To safeguard herself and Caesarion, she had Antony order the death of her sister Arsinoe, who was living at the temple of Artemis in Ephesus, which was under Roman control. The execution was carried out in 41 BC on the steps of the temple, and this violation of temple sanctuary scandalised Rome.[18]
On 25 December 40 BC, Cleopatra gave birth to twins fathered by Antony, Alexander Helios and Cleopatra Selene II. Four years later, Antony visited Alexandria again en route to make war with the Parthians. He renewed his relationship with Cleopatra, and from this point on Alexandria would be his home. He married Cleopatra according to the Egyptian rite (a letter quoted in Suetonius suggests this), although he was at the time married to Octavia Minor, sister of his fellow triumvir Octavian. He and Cleopatra had another child, Ptolemy Philadelphus.
Coin of Antony and Cleopatra
A tetradrachm of Cleopatra VII, Ascalon mint
At the Donations of Alexandria in late 34 BC, following Antony's conquest of Armenia, Cleopatra and Caesarion were crowned co-rulers of Egypt and Cyprus; Alexander Helios was crowned ruler of Armenia, Media, and Parthia; Cleopatra Selene II was crowned ruler of Cyrenaica and Libya; and Ptolemy Philadelphus was crowned ruler of Phoenicia, Syria, and Cilicia. Cleopatra also took the title of Queen of Kings.[19] Cleopatra "was planning a war of revenge that was to array all the East against Rome, establish herself as empress of the world at Rome and inaugurate a new universal kingdom."[20]
Relations between Antony and Octavian, disintegrating for several years, finally broke down in 33 BC, and Octavian convinced the Senate to levy war against Egypt. In 31 BC Antony's forces faced the Romans in a naval action off the coast of Actium. Cleopatra was present with a fleet of her own. Popular legend states that when she saw that Antony's poorly equipped and manned ships were losing to the Romans' superior vessels, she took flight and that Antony abandoned the battle to follow her, but no contemporary evidence states this was the case.
Following the Battle of Actium, Octavian invaded Egypt. As he approached Alexandria, Antony's armies deserted to Octavian on August 1, 30 BC.
There are a number of unverifiable stories about Cleopatra, of which one of the best known is that, at one of the lavish dinners she shared with Antony, she playfully bet him that she could spend ten million sesterces on a dinner. He accepted the bet. The next night, she had a conventional, unspectacular meal served; he was ridiculing this, when she ordered the second course — only a cup of strong vinegar. She then removed one of her priceless pearl earrings, dropped it into the vinegar, allowed it to dissolve, and drank the mixture. The earliest report of this story comes from Pliny the Elder and dates to about 100 years after the banquet described would have happened. The calcium carbonate in pearls does dissolve in vinegar, but slowly unless the pearl is first crushed.[21]
[edit] Death
The ancient sources, particularly the Roman ones, are in general agreement that Cleopatra killed herself by inducing an Egyptian cobra to bite her. The oldest source is Strabo, who was alive at the time of the event, and might even have been in Alexandria. He says that there are two stories: that she applied a toxic ointment, or that she was bitten by an asp.[22] Several Roman poets, writing within ten years of the event, all mention bites by two asps,[23][24][25] as does Florus, a historian, some 150 years later.[26] Velleius, sixty years after the event, also refers to an asp.[27] Other authors have questioned these historical accounts, stating that it is possible that Augustus had her killed.[28]
A tetradrachm of Cleopatra VII, Syria mint
Plutarch, writing about 130 years after the event, reports that Octavian succeeded in capturing Cleopatra in her Mausoleum after the death of Antony. He ordered his freedman Epaphroditus to guard her to prevent her from commiting suicide because he allegedly wanted to present her in his triumph. But Cleopatra was able to deceive Epaphroditus and kill herself nevertheless.[29] Plutarch states that she was found dead, her handmaiden, Iras dying at her feet, and another handmaiden, Charmion, adjusting her crown before she herself falls.[30] He then goes on to state that an asp was concealed in a basket of figs that was brought to her by a rustic, and, finding it after eating a few figs, she held out her arm for it to bite. Other stories state that it was hidden in a vase, and that she poked it with a spindle until it got angry enough to bite her on the arm. Finally, he eventually writes, in Octavian's triumphal march back in Rome, an effigy of Cleopatra that has an asp clinging to it is part of the parade.[31]
Suetonius, writing about the same time as Plutarch, also says Cleopatra died from an asp bite.[32]
Shakespeare gave us the final part of the image that has come down to us, Cleopatra clutching the snake to her breast.[33] Before him, it was generally agreed that she was bitten on the arm.[34][35][36]
Plutarch tells us of the death of Antony. When his armies desert him and join with Octavian, he cries out that Cleopatra has betrayed him. She, fearing his wrath, locks herself in her monument with only her two handmaidens and sends messengers to Antony that she is dead. Believing them, Antony stabs himself in the stomach with his sword, and lies on his couch to die. Instead, the blood flow stops, and he begs any and all to finish him off.
The Death of Cleopatra by Guido Cagnacci, 1658
Another messenger comes from Cleopatra with instructions to bear him to her, and he, rejoicing that Cleopatra is still alive, consents. She won't open the door, but tosses ropes out of a window. After Antony is securely trussed up, she and her handmaidens haul him up into the monument. This nearly finishes him off. After dragging him in through the window, they lay him on a couch. Cleopatra tears off her clothes and covers him with them. She raves and cries, beats her breasts and engages in self-mutilation. Antony tells her to calm down, asks for a glass of wine, and dies upon finishing it.[37]
The site of their Mausoleum is uncertain, though it is thought by the Egyptian Antiquities Service, to be in or near the temple of Taposiris Magna south west of Alexandria.[38]
Cleopatra's son by Caesar, Caesarion, was proclaimed pharaoh by the Egyptians, after Alexandria fell to Octavian. Caesarion was captured and killed, his fate reportedly sealed when one of Octavian's advisers paraphrased Homer: "It is bad to have too many Caesars."[39] This ended not just the Hellenistic line of Egyptian pharaohs, but the line of all Egyptian pharaohs. The three children of Cleopatra and Antony were spared and taken back to Rome where they were taken care of by Antony's wife, Octavia Minor. The daughter, Cleopatra Selene, was married by arrangements by Octavian to Juba II of Mauretania.[40]
[edit] Character and cultural depictions
Main article: Cultural depictions of Cleopatra VII
Cleopatra was regarded as a great beauty, even in the ancient world. In his Life of Antony, Plutarch remarks that "judging by the proofs which she had had before this of the effect of her beauty upon Caius Caesar and Gnaeus the son of Pompey, she had hopes that she would more easily bring Antony to her feet. For Caesar and Pompey had known her when she was still a girl and inexperienced in affairs, but she was going to visit Antony at the very time when women have the most brilliant beauty".[6] Later in the work, however, Plutarch indicates that "her beauty, as we are told, was in itself not altogether incomparable, nor such as to strike those who saw her."[6] Rather, what ultimately made Cleopatra attractive were her wit, charm and "sweetness in the tones of her voice."[6]
Cassius Dio also spoke of Cleopatra's allure: "For she was a woman of surpassing beauty, and at that time, when she was in the prime of her youth, she was most striking; she also possessed a most charming voice and knowledge of how to make herself agreeable to every one. Being brilliant to look upon and to listen to, with the power to subjugate every one, even a love-sated man already past his prime, she thought that it would be in keeping with her role to meet Caesar, and she reposed in her beauty all her claims to the throne."[6]
These accounts influenced later cultural depictions of Cleopatra, which typically present her using her charms to influence the most powerful men in the Western world.
[edit] Ancestry
The high degree of inbreeding amongst the Ptolemies can be seen from the ancestry of Cleopatra VII. As the stemma below shows, she only had four great-grandparents and six (out of a possible 16) great-great-grandparents (furthermore, four of those six were descended from the other two).
Ancestors of Cleopatra VII of Egypt[show]
16. Ptolemy V Epiphanes
8. Ptolemy VIII Physcon
17. Cleopatra I of Egypt
4. Ptolemy IX Lathyros
18. Ptolemy VI Philometor (brother of 8)
9. Cleopatra III of Egypt
19. Cleopatra II of Egypt (sister of 8)
2. Ptolemy XII Auletes
20. =16. Ptolemy V Epiphanes
10. =8. Ptolemy VIII Physcon
21. =17. Cleopatra I of Egypt
5. Cleopatra IV of Egypt
22. =18. Ptolemy VI Philometor
11. =9. Cleopatra III of Egypt
23. =19. Cleopatra II of Egypt
1. Cleopatra VII
24. =16. Ptolemy V Epiphanes
12. =8. Ptolemy VIII Physcon
25. =17. Cleopatra I of Egypt
6. Ptolemy X Alexander I
26. =18. Ptolemy VI Philometor
13. =9. Cleopatra III of Egypt
27. =19. Cleopatra II of Egypt
3. Cleopatra V of Egypt
28. =8. Ptolemy VIII Physcon
14. =4. Ptolemy IX Lathyros
29. =9. Cleopatra III of Egypt
7. Berenice III of Egypt
30. =8. Ptolemy VIII Physcon
15. Cleopatra Selene I
31. =9. Cleopatra III of Egypt
[edit] References
Wikinews has related news: Egyptian archaeologist finds artifacts which may lead to Cleopatra's tomb
Hegesippus, Historiae i.29-32
Macrobius, Saturnalia iii.17.14-18
Lucan, Bellum civile ix.909-911, x
Suetonius, De vita Caesarum Iul i.35.52, ii.17
Pliny, Naturalis historia vii.2.14, ix.58.119-121, xxi.9.12
Orosius, Historiae adversus paganos vi.16.1-2, 19.4-18
[edit] Footnotes
^ "Who Was Cleopatra? (page 2)". Smithsonian Magazine. http://www.smithsonianmag.com/history-archaeology/biography/cleopatra.html. Retrieved 2008-01-22.
^ The Oxford Encyclopedia of Ancient Egypt. “,Cleopatra VII was born to Ptolemy XII Auletes (80–57 BCE, ruled 55–51 BCE) and Cleopatra, both parents being Macedonian Greeks."
^ Encyclopedia of the Archaeology of Ancient Egypt by Kathryn Bard, page 488 “ Ptolemaic kings were still crowned at Memphis and the city was popularly regarded as the Egyptian rival to Alexandria, founded by the Macedonian Greeks”; Page 687: "During the Ptolemaic period, when Egypt was governed by rulers of Greek descent…”
^ Cleopatra: A Sourcebook (Oklahoma Series in Classical Culture) by Prudence J. Jones (Author) page14“They were members of the Ptolemaic dynasty of Macedonian Greeks, who ruled Egypt after the death of its conqueror, Alexander the Great.”
^ Women in Hellenistic Egypt by Sarah B. Pomeroy, page 16 “while Ptolemaic Egypt was a monarchy with a Greek ruling class."
^ a b c d e "The Beauty of Cleopatra". University of Chicago. http://penelope.uchicago.edu/~grout/encyclopaedia_romana/miscellanea/cleopatra/bust.html. Retrieved 2008-05-28.
^ The German historian Werner Huß (Die Herkunft der Kleopatra Philopator (The descent of Cleopatra Philopator), Aegyptus 70, 1990, pp. 191-203) assumes instead that Cleopatra's mother was a high born Egyptian woman, who possibly had become the second wife of Ptolemy XII after he had repudiated Cleopatra V.
^ Peter Green (1990). Alexander to Actium: The Historical Evolution of the Hellenistic Age. Berkeley: University of California Press. pp. 661–664. ISBN 0-520-05611-6.
^ So the dramatic report of Plutarch (Caesar 49.1-3), that is doubted by some scholars. Cleopatra had to be smuggled secretly into the palace, where Caesar was residing, because Ptolemy XIII blocked all ways to Alexandria to make it impossible for his half-sister to come in the city.
^ Death of Ptolemy XIII: De Bello Alexandrino28-32; Cassius Dio, Roman History 42.43; new enthronement of Cleopatra: De Bello Alexandrino 33; Cassius Dio, Roman History 42.44; Suetonius, Caesar 35.1
^ Cassius Dio, Roman History 43.27.3; Cicero, Letters to Atticus 15.15.2
^ Appian, Civil Wars 2.102.424; Cassius Dio, Roman History 51.22.3
^ Cicero, Letters to Atticus 15.15.2
^ Cicero, Letters to Atticus 14.8.1 (written on 16 April 44 BC) says that he was very glad that the Queen had fled.
^ Josephus, Antiquities of the Jews 15.89
^ Appian, Civil Wars 4.61.262-263; Cassius Dio, Roman History 47.30.4 and 47.31.5
^ Appian, Civil Wars 4.63; 4.74; 4.82; 5.8
^ BBC documentary, Cleopatra portrait of a killer
^ Ronald Syme, The Roman Revolution (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1962), 270.
^ Ronald Syme, The Roman Revolution (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1962), 274.
^ Ullman, Berthold L. (1957). "Cleopatra's Pearls". The Classical Journal 52 (5): 193–201.
^ but he said in his writings that he wasn't sure if Cleopatra poisoned herself or was murdered. Strabo, Geography, XVII 10
^ Vergil, Aeneid, VIII 696-697
^ Horace, Odes, I 37
^ Sextus Propertius, Elegies, III 11
^ Florus, Epitome of Roman History, II 21
^ Velleius Paterculus, Compendium of Roman History, II 87
^ Everitt, Anthony (2007). Augustus: The Life of Rome's First Emperor. New York: Random House Trade Paperbacks. pp. 194–195. ISBN 0-8129-7058-6.
^ Plutarch, Life of Antony 79.6 and 85.4-6; Cassius Dio, Roman History 51.11.4-5 and 51.13.3-5
^ Plutarch, Parallel Lives, LXXXV 2-3 (Life of Antony)
^ Plutarch, ibid., LXXXVI 3. See also Cassius Dio, Roman History, LI 21
^ Suetonius, On the Life of the Caesars, Augustus, XVII 4
^ Shakespeare, Antony and Cleopatra, V ii
^ Plutarch, loc. cit.
^ Cassius Dio, op. cit., LI 14
^ Galen, De Theriaca ad Pisonem, CCXXXVII, who says she bit herself, rather than an asp biting her.
^ Plutarch, ibid.
^ "Dig 'may reveal' Cleopatra's tomb". BBC News. 2009-04-15. http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/middle_east/8000978.stm. Retrieved 2009-04-24.
^ Plutarch, Life of Antony 81.4 - 82.1; Cassius Dio, Roman History 51.15.5; Suetonius, Augustus 17.5
^ Plutarch, Life of Antony 87.1-2; Cassius Dio, Roman History 51.15.6; Suetonius, Augustus 17.5 and Caligula 26.1
[edit] Further reading
Bradford, Ernle Dusgate Selby (2000), Cleopatra, Penguin Group, ISBN 9780141390147
Burstein, Stanley M., The Reign of Cleopatra, University of Oklahoma Press
Flamarion, Edith; Bonfante-Warren, Alexandra (1997), Cleopatra: The Life and Death of a Pharoah, Harry Abrams, ISBN 9780810928053
Foss, Michael (1999), The Search for Cleopatra, Arcade Publishing, ISBN 9781559705035
Nardo, Don (1994), Cleopatra, Lucent Books, ISBN 9781560060239
Southern, Pat (2000), Cleopatra, Tempus, ISBN 9780752414942
Walker, Susan; Higgs, Peter (2001), Cleopatra of Egypt, From History to Myth, Princeton University Press, ISBN 9780691088358
[edit] External links
Find more about Cleopatra VII on Wikipedia's sister projects: Definitions from Wiktionary Textbooks from Wikibooks Quotations from Wikiquote Source texts from Wikisource Images and media from Commons News stories from Wikinews Learning resources from Wikiversity
[edit] General
The Queen Cleopatra at the Encyclopedia channel biographical films about historical figures
Cleopatra on the Web 580 resources, including ancient and modern pictures
Cleopatra VII Philopator ancient sources
Cleopatra VII (VI) at LacusCurtius - Chapter XIII of E. R. Bevan's House of Ptolemy, 1923
Cleopatra, a Victorian children's book by Jacob Abbott, 1852, Project Gutenberg edition.
Genealogy of Cleopatra VII
James Grout: Cleopatra part of the Encyclopædia Romana
"Mysterious Death of Cleopatra" at the Discovery Channel
Cleopatra VII at BBC History
"The 'New Cleopatra' and the Jewish Tax" Biblical Archaeology Society
[edit] Paintings
Sir Thomas Browne: Of the Picture describing the death of Cleopatra (1672)
John Sartain: On the Antique Portrait of Cleopatra (1818)
Cleopatra VII
Ptolemaic dynastyBorn: 69 BC Died: 30 BC
Preceded byPtolemy XII
Queen of Egypt51–30 BCwith Ptolemy XII,Ptolemy XIII,Ptolemy XIV andPtolemy XV Caesarion
Succeeded byEgypt annexed by Rome
Assinar:
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