Postagens
http://ancient-greece.org/architecture/parthenon.html
The Parthenon
At the approximate position where the Parthenon was built later, the Athenians began the construction of a building that was burned by the Persians while it was still under construction in 480 BCE. It was presumably dedicated to Athena, and after its destruction much of its ruins were utilized in the building of the fortifications at the north end of the Acropolis. Not much is known about this temple, and whether or not it was still under construction when it was destroyed has been disputed. Its massive foundations were made of limestone, and the columns were made of Pentelic marble, a material that was utilized for the first time. The classicalParthenon was constructed between 447-432 BCE to be the focus of the Acropolis building complex. The architects were Iktinos and Kallikrates (Vitruvius also names Karpion as an architect) and it was dedicated to the goddess Athena Pallas or Parthenos (virgin). The temple’s main function was to shelter the monumental statue of Athena that was made by Pheidias out of gold and ivory. The temple and the chryselephantine statue were dedicated in 438, although work on the sculptures of its pediment continued until completion in 432 BCE.
The Parthenon construction cost the Athenian treasury 469 silver talents. While it is almost impossible to create a modern equivalent for this amount of money, it might be useful to look at some facts. One talent was the cost to build one trireme, the most advanced warship of the era. (http://www.brown.edu/Departments/Classics/CL56/CL56_LN11.html), and “…one talent was the cost for paying the crew of a warship for a month” (D. Kagan, The Peloponnesian War, 61). According to Kagan, Athens at the beginning of the Peloponnesian war had 200 triremes in service, while the annual gross income of the city of Athens at the time of Perikles was 1000 talents, with another 6000 in reserve at its treasury.
The Parthenon is a temple of the Doric order with eight columns at the façade, and seventeen columns at the flanks, conforming to the established ratio of 9:4. This ratio governed the vertical and horizontal proportions of the temple as well as many other relationships of the building like the spacing between the columns and their height.
The cella was unusually large to accommodate the oversized statue of Athena, confining the front and back porch to a much smaller than usual size. A line of six Doric columns supported the front and back porch, while a colonnade of 23 smaller Doric columns surrounded the statue in a two-storied arrangement. The placement of columns behind the statue was an unusual development since in previous Doric temples they only appeared on the flanks, but the greater width and length of the Parthenon allowed for a dramatic backdrop of double decked columns instead of a wall.
The back room sheltered Athena’s treasure and four columns of the Ionic order supported its roof. The introduction of elements of the Ionic order in a predominately Doric temple was more dramatic in the development of a continuous freeze on the exterior wall of the cella. While the integration of Doric and Ionic elements on the same temple was not a new development in Greek architecture, it was rare, and bestowed on the Parthenon a delicate balance between austere and delicate visual characteristics.
All temples in Greece were designed to be seen only from the outside. The viewers never entered a temple and could only glimpse the interior statues through the open doors. The Parthenon was conceived in a way that the aesthetic elements allow for a smooth transition between the exterior and the interior that housed the chryselephantine statue of Athena. A visitor to the Acropolis who entered from the Propylaia would be confronted by the majestic proportion of the Parthenon in three quarters view, with full view of the west pediment and the north colonnade. As the viewer moved closer, the details of the sculpted metopes would become decipherable, and when in proximity to the base of the columns, parts of the frieze would become evident in tantalizing colorful glimpses peering from the spaces between the columns.
Moving towards the east and looking up towards the exterior of the cella, a visitor would be mesmerized with the masterful depiction of the Panathenaic procession as it appeared in cinematic fashion on the frieze which was visually interrupted by the Doric columns of the exterior. This was certainly a scene that every Athenian could relate to through personal experience, making thus the transition between earth and the divine a smooth one. A visitor moving east would eventually turn the corner to face the entrance of the Parthenon, and there he would be confronted with the birth of Athena high above on the east pediment, and just beyond it, the arrephores folding the peplos among the Olympian gods and the heroes of the frieze. Then, just below, the “peplos” scene, through the immense open doors, any visitor would be enchanted by the glistening gold and ivory hues of the monumental statue of Athena standing at the back of the dim cella. The statue of Athena Pallas reflected its immense stature on the tranquil surface of the water-pool floor, and was framed by yet more Doric columns, this time smaller, in a double-decked arrangement that made the interior space seem as if it were even larger and taller than the exterior.
It seems certain that the master planners of the Parthenon conceived it as a theatrical event. The temple was constructed with the movements of the viewer in mind, and by the arrangement of the temple, the monumental sculptures of the pediment, and the detailed frieze, the emotions of the visitors were choreographed to prepare them for the ultimate glimpse of the majestic Athena Parthenos at the interior of the naos, and to maximize the effect of an awe inspiring visit.
segunda-feira, 8 de fevereiro de 2010
sexta-feira, 5 de fevereiro de 2010
Lybia
http://www.libyan-tourism.org/Standard.aspx?ID=83
Tourist Attractions of LibyaThe first site that most tourists visit while arriving to Libya is Tripoli or the capital country. It is the city of Islamic civilization, Arab art and handicraft, where every monument narrates a tale. The dominating site of Tripoli is the castle, Al-Saraya Al-Hamra, which occupies the east quadrant of the old city. The Castle Museum displays archaeology and artifacts of ancient Libyan history covering the Phoenician, Greek and Roman periods. Tripoli is also vibrant with lush garden filled with olive trees, palms, grapevines, and orange groves.
Founded by the Canaanites in the 6th century BC the World Heritage site of Sabratah is located on the beautiful Mediterranean coastline. The Amphitheatre in Sabratha is a major tourist spot with a wide variety of public baths, temples and fountains.
The historical town of Leptis Magna in the east of Tripoli offers incredible archaeological sites. It was originally a port, built by the Phoenicians in the first millennium BC. Among the things worth seeing in Leptis Magna are the Severan Arch built in honor of Emperor Septimus Severus, the Hadrianic Baths, a detailed Basilica and an amphitheater.
One of the best tours that Libya offers is a visit to Ghadames desert, in the south of Tripoli. Built in an oasis, Ghadames, "the pearl of the desert", is one of the oldest pre-Saharan cities and a beautiful specimen of a traditional settlement. The old town's unique architecture consists of whitewashed mud walls and narrow and obscure walkways. Worth seeing are the D'jmaa al-Kabir mosque, where the minaret can be climbed for a wonderful panorama of the city; Mulberry Square or the old slave market and the House Museum, that displays unique mercantile furnishings. Nearby are the Zallaf Sand Dunes, abode of the native Tuareng tribe.
Benghazi is Libya's second-largest city located on the eastern most part of the Gulf of Sirt. Ras Alteen a nearby beach with pristine white sands is a relaxation spot of the tourists. Other historical sites include the battlefield of Tobruk and the town of Cyrene. In nearby Suluq stands the mausoleum of Omar Mokhtar, hero of the Libyan Resistance during the Italian occupation. Libya is a fascinating mix of history, culture and desert life. Tripoli, the capital city is a showcase to the rest of the country. Interesting sights include the Al medina Al Gadima, Al Saray Al Hare Castle, the many bazaars and souks as well as the museums and The countries Islamic heritage can be seen at Sirt, Darnah and Ajdabiya, and a glimpse of local Libyan life can be observed in the desert cities of Ghadames, Ghat, Ahwhat, Ojla, mosques. Tripoli is the capital of Libya.Religion: The state religion is Islam (Sunni Muslim).Official Language: The official language is Arabic. English and Italian are also spoken.Government: Power of the people. Climate: Libya has a Mediterranean climate. Winters are mild and wet and summers, hot and dry. Units of measure and electricity: Libya follows the metric system of measurement and the official electricity unit is 220V, 50 Hz.Time Zone: The Libya standard time is GMT + 2.Currency: Libyan Dinar (1 € = 1, 72 LYD).Travel documents required: Visas are necessary for travel to Libya.
Tripoli
Tripoli is Libya's largest city and port, the country's capital full-time .It is located on the Mediterranean Sea, in the northwestern part of the country. The climate is Mediterranean with hot dry summers, cool winters and some modest rainfall.The city was founded in the 7th century BC by the Phoenicians, who named it Oea. As an important gateway between Africa and Europe, commerce prospered through the years.Modern Tripoli is divided into two parts:El-Mina, the port area and site of the beautiful ancient city;The town of Tripoli. Tripoli International Airport is very near the city.
Benghazi
Benghazi is in north-eastern Libya. Located on the Gulf of Sidra Benghazi, it is the second largest city in the country. Benghazi has a Mediterranean climate with moderate wet winters and warm dry summers.
Derna
Derna is located in the northern part of Libya, along the Mediterranean Sea. Derna enjoys a humid Mediterranean climate with temperatures in the summer averaging 30°C. Winter temperatures are much cooler here than in the interior desert region; rainfall occurs at this time of the year.
Germa
Germa is a small village in the western part of Libya. This sparsely populated settlement is nestled in the eastern Sahara desert or what is also known as the Fezzan desert region.The climate here is typical of the desert region of the country. There is hardly any rainfall at all. Summers are hot with temperatures often hovering around the 50°C mark; winters are chilly. A hot desert wind, the ghibli, can raise the temperature any time of the year.
Ghadhames
Ghadhames is a beautiful oasis town in the country of Libya, in Africa. It is located 600 km south-west of Tripoli (the capital of Libya), near the border between Algeria and Tunisia.Gradhames is characterized by a typical desert climate it experiences scorching, dry heat during the summers, while the winters are mild. There are huge variations in the day and night temperatures. October to April is the best time to visit this place.
Ghat
Ghat is located in the south-western part of Libya. This remote region, almost in the middle of the great Sahara
Desert.
Ghat has the typical desert climate with temperatures in summer often soaring to 50ºC, while in winters they may drop to 15ºC in the day and even below the freezing point at night.
Sussa
Sussa, also known as Apollonia, lies on the north-western side of the Al Jabal Al Akhdar (Green Mountains) in Al Jabal Al Akhdar, Libya. The city of Sussa, is about 1,300 km from the Libyan capital Tripoli. Situated on the Mediterranean coast, it is 20 km north of Shahat (Cyrene). Apollonia served as a harbour for Cyrene and was one of the five towns of the Greek Pentapolis.The region Hot, dry summers and cool winters are characteristic of the weather in Sussa. Dust storms and sandstorms accompanied by the southern Gibli winds are a common occurrence.
Shahat
Shahat, also known historically as Cyrene, is a city in northern Libya. It is one of the biggest and most beautiful archaeological areas in the Green Mountains. The nearest airports are the Benin International Airport (in Benghazi).It is Founded in 631 BC by Greek expatriates, the city lies on the ruins of Cyrene. It is classified as a World Heritage Site is considered one of the most beautiful Greek vestiges in the world today. Shahat was also the most famous of the Pentapolis cities of the region.The region experiences a temperate-Mediterranean climate, with cool winters and dry summers. Extreme weather conditions are to be expected due to the desert terrain.
Leptis Magna
Leptis Magna is an archaeological site in the northern part of Libya. It is located in the Al Khums region, with the Mediterranean coast on one side and the Sahara Desert on the other. Owing to its location near the Mediterranean Sea the area has a more temperate climate than the interiors of the country. The impact of the desert keeps the climate dry with very hot summers and pleasant winters. Rainfall is minimal.
Sabratah
Sabratah is situated in the northern part of Libya, in the Zawia district along the Mediterranean coast. The region enjoys a typical Mediterranean climate—more temperate climate than the interiors of the country. The impact of the desert keeps the climate dry with very hot summers and pleasant winters. Rainfall is minimal.Sabratah was one of the three ancient cities of Tripoli; the closest one. Its port was developed more than 2,500 years ago, and it was used as a trading post for the surrounding areas to ship their products to other areas of the world.
Tolmeitha
Tolmeitha, previously known as Ptolemais, is a tranquil town in Al Marj, in north-eastern Libya. It lies at the foot of the Green Mountains and forms a part of the impressive Greek Pentapolis (which also includes Apollonia and Cyrene). Historically, Tolmeitha was a part of the ancient city of Cyrenaica. In troubled times, it acted as a safe haven between Apollonia (modern Sussa) and Euhesperides-Berenice (modern Benghazi).The region experiences a Mediterranean climate, adding to its charm as a year-round tourist destination. Tolmeitha’s weather is mostly desert-like and dry, but pleasant near water bodies
Tukra
Tukra, or Teuchira as it was earlier known, is a historic city in the Green Mountains region of Libya. Founded in 510 BC, it used to be a port city for the Greeks and later became of one of the five cities of the respected Pentapolis along with Cyrene, Apollonia, Berenice and Ptolemais (during the rule of Ptolemy the Great). Tukra experiences hot, dry summers and cool winters. Precipitation is minimal during the year. During spring and autumn, the region is prone to Gibli (dusty desert winds).
Zuwaylah and Jalu
Zuwaylah and Jalu. Many of these places offer excellent desert safaris. For lovers of history, Libya is home to the World Heritage Sites .
Tourist Attractions of LibyaThe first site that most tourists visit while arriving to Libya is Tripoli or the capital country. It is the city of Islamic civilization, Arab art and handicraft, where every monument narrates a tale. The dominating site of Tripoli is the castle, Al-Saraya Al-Hamra, which occupies the east quadrant of the old city. The Castle Museum displays archaeology and artifacts of ancient Libyan history covering the Phoenician, Greek and Roman periods. Tripoli is also vibrant with lush garden filled with olive trees, palms, grapevines, and orange groves.
Founded by the Canaanites in the 6th century BC the World Heritage site of Sabratah is located on the beautiful Mediterranean coastline. The Amphitheatre in Sabratha is a major tourist spot with a wide variety of public baths, temples and fountains.
The historical town of Leptis Magna in the east of Tripoli offers incredible archaeological sites. It was originally a port, built by the Phoenicians in the first millennium BC. Among the things worth seeing in Leptis Magna are the Severan Arch built in honor of Emperor Septimus Severus, the Hadrianic Baths, a detailed Basilica and an amphitheater.
One of the best tours that Libya offers is a visit to Ghadames desert, in the south of Tripoli. Built in an oasis, Ghadames, "the pearl of the desert", is one of the oldest pre-Saharan cities and a beautiful specimen of a traditional settlement. The old town's unique architecture consists of whitewashed mud walls and narrow and obscure walkways. Worth seeing are the D'jmaa al-Kabir mosque, where the minaret can be climbed for a wonderful panorama of the city; Mulberry Square or the old slave market and the House Museum, that displays unique mercantile furnishings. Nearby are the Zallaf Sand Dunes, abode of the native Tuareng tribe.
Benghazi is Libya's second-largest city located on the eastern most part of the Gulf of Sirt. Ras Alteen a nearby beach with pristine white sands is a relaxation spot of the tourists. Other historical sites include the battlefield of Tobruk and the town of Cyrene. In nearby Suluq stands the mausoleum of Omar Mokhtar, hero of the Libyan Resistance during the Italian occupation. Libya is a fascinating mix of history, culture and desert life. Tripoli, the capital city is a showcase to the rest of the country. Interesting sights include the Al medina Al Gadima, Al Saray Al Hare Castle, the many bazaars and souks as well as the museums and The countries Islamic heritage can be seen at Sirt, Darnah and Ajdabiya, and a glimpse of local Libyan life can be observed in the desert cities of Ghadames, Ghat, Ahwhat, Ojla, mosques. Tripoli is the capital of Libya.Religion: The state religion is Islam (Sunni Muslim).Official Language: The official language is Arabic. English and Italian are also spoken.Government: Power of the people. Climate: Libya has a Mediterranean climate. Winters are mild and wet and summers, hot and dry. Units of measure and electricity: Libya follows the metric system of measurement and the official electricity unit is 220V, 50 Hz.Time Zone: The Libya standard time is GMT + 2.Currency: Libyan Dinar (1 € = 1, 72 LYD).Travel documents required: Visas are necessary for travel to Libya.
Tripoli
Tripoli is Libya's largest city and port, the country's capital full-time .It is located on the Mediterranean Sea, in the northwestern part of the country. The climate is Mediterranean with hot dry summers, cool winters and some modest rainfall.The city was founded in the 7th century BC by the Phoenicians, who named it Oea. As an important gateway between Africa and Europe, commerce prospered through the years.Modern Tripoli is divided into two parts:El-Mina, the port area and site of the beautiful ancient city;The town of Tripoli. Tripoli International Airport is very near the city.
Benghazi
Benghazi is in north-eastern Libya. Located on the Gulf of Sidra Benghazi, it is the second largest city in the country. Benghazi has a Mediterranean climate with moderate wet winters and warm dry summers.
Derna
Derna is located in the northern part of Libya, along the Mediterranean Sea. Derna enjoys a humid Mediterranean climate with temperatures in the summer averaging 30°C. Winter temperatures are much cooler here than in the interior desert region; rainfall occurs at this time of the year.
Germa
Germa is a small village in the western part of Libya. This sparsely populated settlement is nestled in the eastern Sahara desert or what is also known as the Fezzan desert region.The climate here is typical of the desert region of the country. There is hardly any rainfall at all. Summers are hot with temperatures often hovering around the 50°C mark; winters are chilly. A hot desert wind, the ghibli, can raise the temperature any time of the year.
Ghadhames
Ghadhames is a beautiful oasis town in the country of Libya, in Africa. It is located 600 km south-west of Tripoli (the capital of Libya), near the border between Algeria and Tunisia.Gradhames is characterized by a typical desert climate it experiences scorching, dry heat during the summers, while the winters are mild. There are huge variations in the day and night temperatures. October to April is the best time to visit this place.
Ghat
Ghat is located in the south-western part of Libya. This remote region, almost in the middle of the great Sahara
Desert.
Ghat has the typical desert climate with temperatures in summer often soaring to 50ºC, while in winters they may drop to 15ºC in the day and even below the freezing point at night.
Sussa
Sussa, also known as Apollonia, lies on the north-western side of the Al Jabal Al Akhdar (Green Mountains) in Al Jabal Al Akhdar, Libya. The city of Sussa, is about 1,300 km from the Libyan capital Tripoli. Situated on the Mediterranean coast, it is 20 km north of Shahat (Cyrene). Apollonia served as a harbour for Cyrene and was one of the five towns of the Greek Pentapolis.The region Hot, dry summers and cool winters are characteristic of the weather in Sussa. Dust storms and sandstorms accompanied by the southern Gibli winds are a common occurrence.
Shahat
Shahat, also known historically as Cyrene, is a city in northern Libya. It is one of the biggest and most beautiful archaeological areas in the Green Mountains. The nearest airports are the Benin International Airport (in Benghazi).It is Founded in 631 BC by Greek expatriates, the city lies on the ruins of Cyrene. It is classified as a World Heritage Site is considered one of the most beautiful Greek vestiges in the world today. Shahat was also the most famous of the Pentapolis cities of the region.The region experiences a temperate-Mediterranean climate, with cool winters and dry summers. Extreme weather conditions are to be expected due to the desert terrain.
Leptis Magna
Leptis Magna is an archaeological site in the northern part of Libya. It is located in the Al Khums region, with the Mediterranean coast on one side and the Sahara Desert on the other. Owing to its location near the Mediterranean Sea the area has a more temperate climate than the interiors of the country. The impact of the desert keeps the climate dry with very hot summers and pleasant winters. Rainfall is minimal.
Sabratah
Sabratah is situated in the northern part of Libya, in the Zawia district along the Mediterranean coast. The region enjoys a typical Mediterranean climate—more temperate climate than the interiors of the country. The impact of the desert keeps the climate dry with very hot summers and pleasant winters. Rainfall is minimal.Sabratah was one of the three ancient cities of Tripoli; the closest one. Its port was developed more than 2,500 years ago, and it was used as a trading post for the surrounding areas to ship their products to other areas of the world.
Tolmeitha
Tolmeitha, previously known as Ptolemais, is a tranquil town in Al Marj, in north-eastern Libya. It lies at the foot of the Green Mountains and forms a part of the impressive Greek Pentapolis (which also includes Apollonia and Cyrene). Historically, Tolmeitha was a part of the ancient city of Cyrenaica. In troubled times, it acted as a safe haven between Apollonia (modern Sussa) and Euhesperides-Berenice (modern Benghazi).The region experiences a Mediterranean climate, adding to its charm as a year-round tourist destination. Tolmeitha’s weather is mostly desert-like and dry, but pleasant near water bodies
Tukra
Tukra, or Teuchira as it was earlier known, is a historic city in the Green Mountains region of Libya. Founded in 510 BC, it used to be a port city for the Greeks and later became of one of the five cities of the respected Pentapolis along with Cyrene, Apollonia, Berenice and Ptolemais (during the rule of Ptolemy the Great). Tukra experiences hot, dry summers and cool winters. Precipitation is minimal during the year. During spring and autumn, the region is prone to Gibli (dusty desert winds).
Zuwaylah and Jalu
Zuwaylah and Jalu. Many of these places offer excellent desert safaris. For lovers of history, Libya is home to the World Heritage Sites .
City of Sussa
Sussa, also known as Apollonia, lies on the north-western side of the Al Jabal Al Akhdar (Green Mountains) in Al Jabal Al Akhdar, Libya. The city of Sussa, or Sousse by the locals, is about 1,300 km from the Libyan capital Tripoli. Situated on the Mediterranean coast, it is 20 km north of Shahat (Cyrene) and is served by the El Beida Airport.
Apollonia served as a harbour for Cyrene and was one of the five towns of the Greek Pentapolis.
Hot, dry summers and cool winters are characteristic of the weather in Sussa. Dust storms and sandstorms accompanied by the southern Gibli winds are a common occurrence.
While the population of Sussa is unknown, the population of Al Jabal al Akhdar municipality is 195,000. The picturesque city of Shahat (Gorina) is located about 20 km south-west, and Al Bayda is around 40 km in the same direction.
Apollonia served as a harbour for Cyrene and was one of the five towns of the Greek Pentapolis.
Hot, dry summers and cool winters are characteristic of the weather in Sussa. Dust storms and sandstorms accompanied by the southern Gibli winds are a common occurrence.
While the population of Sussa is unknown, the population of Al Jabal al Akhdar municipality is 195,000. The picturesque city of Shahat (Gorina) is located about 20 km south-west, and Al Bayda is around 40 km in the same direction.
City of Sussa
Sussa, also known as Apollonia, lies on the north-western side of the Al Jabal Al Akhdar (Green Mountains) in Al Jabal Al Akhdar, Libya. The city of Sussa, or Sousse by the locals, is about 1,300 km from the Libyan capital Tripoli. Situated on the Mediterranean coast, it is 20 km north of Shahat (Cyrene) and is served by the El Beida Airport.
Apollonia served as a harbour for Cyrene and was one of the five towns of the Greek Pentapolis.
Hot, dry summers and cool winters are characteristic of the weather in Sussa. Dust storms and sandstorms accompanied by the southern Gibli winds are a common occurrence.
While the population of Sussa is unknown, the population of Al Jabal al Akhdar municipality is 195,000. The picturesque city of Shahat (Gorina) is located about 20 km south-west, and Al Bayda is around 40 km in the same direction.
Apollonia served as a harbour for Cyrene and was one of the five towns of the Greek Pentapolis.
Hot, dry summers and cool winters are characteristic of the weather in Sussa. Dust storms and sandstorms accompanied by the southern Gibli winds are a common occurrence.
While the population of Sussa is unknown, the population of Al Jabal al Akhdar municipality is 195,000. The picturesque city of Shahat (Gorina) is located about 20 km south-west, and Al Bayda is around 40 km in the same direction.
quinta-feira, 4 de fevereiro de 2010
Ur
http://history-world.org/ur.htm
Sumeria, The City of Ur
For the gods have abandoned us
like migrating birds they have gone
Ur is destroyed, bitter is its lament
The country's blood now fills its holes like hot bronze in a mould
Bodies dissolve like fat in the sun. Our temple is destroyed
Smoke lies on our city like a shroud.
blood flows as the river does
the lamenting of men and women
sadness abounds
Ur is no more
Ur (biblical, Ur of the Chaldees), ancient city of Mesopotamia. Its ruins are approximately midway between the modern city of Baghdâd, Iraq, and the head of the Persian Gulf, south of the Euphrates River, on the edge of the Al ajarah Desert. The site of Ur is known today as Tall al Muqayyar, Iraq. In antiquity the Euphrates River flowed near the city walls. Controlling this outlet to the sea, Ur was favorably located for the development of commerce and for attaining political dominance.
Ur was the principal center of worship of the Sumerian moon god Nanna and of his Babylonian equivalent Sin. The massive ziggurat of this deity, one of the best preserved in Iraq, stands about 21 m (about 70 ft) above the desert. The biblical name, Ur of the Chaldees, refers to the Chaldeans, who settled in the area about 900 BC. The Book of Genesis (see 11:27-32) describes Ur as the starting point of the migration westward to Palestine of the family of Abraham about 1900 BC.
Ur was one of the first village settlements founded (circa 4000 BC) by the so-called Ubaidian inhabitants of Sumer. Before 2800 BC, Ur became one of the most prosperous Sumerian city-states. According to ancient records, Ur had three dynasties of rulers who, at various times, extended their control over all of Sumer. The founder of the 1st Dynasty of Ur was the conqueror and temple builder Mesanepada (reigned about 2670 BC), the earliest Mesopotamian ruler described in extant contemporary documents. His son Aanepadda (reigned about 2650 BC) built the temple of the goddess Ninhursag, which was excavated in modern times at Tell al-Obeid, about 8 km (about 5 mi) northeast of the site of Ur. Of the 2nd Dynasty of Ur little is known.
Ur-Nammu (reigned 2113-2095 BC), the first king of the 3rd Dynasty of Ur, who revived the empire of Sumer and Akkad, won control of the outlet to the sea about 2100 BC and made Ur the wealthiest city in Mesopotamia. His reign marked the beginning of the so-called renaissance of Sumerian art and literature at Ur. Ur-Nammu and his son and successor Shulgi (reigned 2095-2047 BC) built the ziggurat of Nanna (about 2100 BC) and magnificent temples at Ur and in other Mesopotamian cities. The descendants of Ur-Nammu continued in power for more than a century, or until shortly before 2000 BC, when the Elamites captured Ibbi-Sin (reigned 2029-2004 BC), king of Ur, and destroyed the city.
Rebuilt shortly thereafter, Ur became part of the kingdom of Isin, later of the kingdom of Larsa, and finally was incorporated into Babylonia. During the period when Babylonia was ruled by the Kassites, Ur remained an important religious center. It was a provincial capital with hereditary governors during the period of Assyrian rule in Babylonia.
After the Chaldean dynasty was established in Babylonia, King Nebuchadnezzar II initiated a new period of building activity at Ur. The last Babylonian king, Nabonidus (reigned 556-539 BC), who appointed his eldest daughter high priestess at Ur, embellished the temples and entirely remodeled the ziggurat of Nanna, making it rival even the temple of Marduk at Babylon. After Babylonia came under the control of Persia, Ur began to decline. By the 4th century BC, the city was practically forgotten, possibly as a result of a shift in the course of the Euphrates River.
The ruins of Ur were found and first excavated (1854-55) by the British consul J. E. Taylor, who partly uncovered the ziggurat of Nanna. The British Museum commenced (1918-19) excavations here and at neighboring Tell al-Obeid under the direction of the British archaeologists Reginald C. Thompson and H. R. H. Hall. These excavations were continued from 1922 to 1934 by a joint expedition of the British Museum and the University Museum of the University of Pennsylvania under the direction of the British archaeologist Sir Leonard Woolley.
In addition to excavating the ziggurat completely, the expedition unearthed the entire temple area at Ur and parts of the residential and commercial quarters of the city. The most spectacular discovery was that of the Royal Cemetery, dating from about 2600BC and containing art treasures of gold, silver, bronze, and precious stones. The findings left little doubt that the deaths of the king and queen of Ur were followed by the voluntary death of their courtiers and personal attendants and of the court soldiers and musicians. Within the city itself were discovered thousands of cuneiform tablets comprising administrative and literary documents dating from about 2700 to the 4th century BC. The deepest levels of the city contained traces of a flood, alleged to be the deluge of Sumerian, Babylonian, and Hebrew legend. All scientific evidence, however, indicates that it was merely a local flood.
Sumeria, The City of Ur
For the gods have abandoned us
like migrating birds they have gone
Ur is destroyed, bitter is its lament
The country's blood now fills its holes like hot bronze in a mould
Bodies dissolve like fat in the sun. Our temple is destroyed
Smoke lies on our city like a shroud.
blood flows as the river does
the lamenting of men and women
sadness abounds
Ur is no more
Ur (biblical, Ur of the Chaldees), ancient city of Mesopotamia. Its ruins are approximately midway between the modern city of Baghdâd, Iraq, and the head of the Persian Gulf, south of the Euphrates River, on the edge of the Al ajarah Desert. The site of Ur is known today as Tall al Muqayyar, Iraq. In antiquity the Euphrates River flowed near the city walls. Controlling this outlet to the sea, Ur was favorably located for the development of commerce and for attaining political dominance.
Ur was the principal center of worship of the Sumerian moon god Nanna and of his Babylonian equivalent Sin. The massive ziggurat of this deity, one of the best preserved in Iraq, stands about 21 m (about 70 ft) above the desert. The biblical name, Ur of the Chaldees, refers to the Chaldeans, who settled in the area about 900 BC. The Book of Genesis (see 11:27-32) describes Ur as the starting point of the migration westward to Palestine of the family of Abraham about 1900 BC.
Ur was one of the first village settlements founded (circa 4000 BC) by the so-called Ubaidian inhabitants of Sumer. Before 2800 BC, Ur became one of the most prosperous Sumerian city-states. According to ancient records, Ur had three dynasties of rulers who, at various times, extended their control over all of Sumer. The founder of the 1st Dynasty of Ur was the conqueror and temple builder Mesanepada (reigned about 2670 BC), the earliest Mesopotamian ruler described in extant contemporary documents. His son Aanepadda (reigned about 2650 BC) built the temple of the goddess Ninhursag, which was excavated in modern times at Tell al-Obeid, about 8 km (about 5 mi) northeast of the site of Ur. Of the 2nd Dynasty of Ur little is known.
Ur-Nammu (reigned 2113-2095 BC), the first king of the 3rd Dynasty of Ur, who revived the empire of Sumer and Akkad, won control of the outlet to the sea about 2100 BC and made Ur the wealthiest city in Mesopotamia. His reign marked the beginning of the so-called renaissance of Sumerian art and literature at Ur. Ur-Nammu and his son and successor Shulgi (reigned 2095-2047 BC) built the ziggurat of Nanna (about 2100 BC) and magnificent temples at Ur and in other Mesopotamian cities. The descendants of Ur-Nammu continued in power for more than a century, or until shortly before 2000 BC, when the Elamites captured Ibbi-Sin (reigned 2029-2004 BC), king of Ur, and destroyed the city.
Rebuilt shortly thereafter, Ur became part of the kingdom of Isin, later of the kingdom of Larsa, and finally was incorporated into Babylonia. During the period when Babylonia was ruled by the Kassites, Ur remained an important religious center. It was a provincial capital with hereditary governors during the period of Assyrian rule in Babylonia.
After the Chaldean dynasty was established in Babylonia, King Nebuchadnezzar II initiated a new period of building activity at Ur. The last Babylonian king, Nabonidus (reigned 556-539 BC), who appointed his eldest daughter high priestess at Ur, embellished the temples and entirely remodeled the ziggurat of Nanna, making it rival even the temple of Marduk at Babylon. After Babylonia came under the control of Persia, Ur began to decline. By the 4th century BC, the city was practically forgotten, possibly as a result of a shift in the course of the Euphrates River.
The ruins of Ur were found and first excavated (1854-55) by the British consul J. E. Taylor, who partly uncovered the ziggurat of Nanna. The British Museum commenced (1918-19) excavations here and at neighboring Tell al-Obeid under the direction of the British archaeologists Reginald C. Thompson and H. R. H. Hall. These excavations were continued from 1922 to 1934 by a joint expedition of the British Museum and the University Museum of the University of Pennsylvania under the direction of the British archaeologist Sir Leonard Woolley.
In addition to excavating the ziggurat completely, the expedition unearthed the entire temple area at Ur and parts of the residential and commercial quarters of the city. The most spectacular discovery was that of the Royal Cemetery, dating from about 2600BC and containing art treasures of gold, silver, bronze, and precious stones. The findings left little doubt that the deaths of the king and queen of Ur were followed by the voluntary death of their courtiers and personal attendants and of the court soldiers and musicians. Within the city itself were discovered thousands of cuneiform tablets comprising administrative and literary documents dating from about 2700 to the 4th century BC. The deepest levels of the city contained traces of a flood, alleged to be the deluge of Sumerian, Babylonian, and Hebrew legend. All scientific evidence, however, indicates that it was merely a local flood.
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